CITIZENSHIP    AND    THE 
SCHOOLS 


BY 
JEREMIAH  W.  JENKS,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 

^  t 

Professor  of  Political  Economy  and  Politics 
Cornell  University 


•      or  rv\i 
UNIVERSITY 

OF 


NEW  YORK 
HENRY  HOLT  AND  COMPANY 

1909 


c^\ 


mj^ 


Copyright,  1906, 

By 

JEREMIAH  W.  JENKS 


To 

MY  DAUGHTER  AND  MY  SONS 

with  the  hope  that  they  may  in  due  time  render  to  the  State 

the  high  service  of  good  citizenship. 


184811 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

Microsoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/citizenshipschooOOjenkrich 


PEEFACE. 

The  addresses  and  essays  contained  in  this  volume 
have  been  prepared  at  various  times  and  for  various 
purposes  during  the  last  fifteen  or  sixteen  years.  I  am 
well  aware  that  they  show  clearly  in  manner  and  thought 
the  variety  of  uses  to  which  they  have  been  put,  even  in 
some  instances  the  pressure  of  the  circumstances  under 
which  they  were  written;  but  this  possibly  will  not 
diminish  their  usefulness,  and  it  has  been  thought  best 
not  to  attempt  to  rewrite  them.  All  of  them  have  a 
direct  bearing  upon  education,  either  from  the  point  of 
view  of  educational  doctrine  or  from  that  of  school  ad- 
ministration. All  of  them  deal  more  or  less,  most  of 
them  primarily,  with  the  relation  of  educational  work  to 
social  and  political  life. 

The  essay  on  School-Book  Legislation  was  the  out- 
come of  a  careful  observation  of  the  process  of  law- 
making in  the  state  of  Indiana  and  is  perhaps  as 
much  a'  political  as  an  educational  study.  From  the 
educational  point  of  view,  however,  the  subject  has 
much  interest,  and  it  has  therefore  been  thought  wise 


Vi  PREFACE,  \ 

to  add  to  this  essay  a  supplementary  note  containing  \ 
a  list  of  laws  along  similar  lines  which  have  been  \ 
passed  in  the  various  states  since  that  time.  j 

As  a  student  of  politics  for  many  years,  I  have  ; 
been  much  impressed  by  the  apathy  of  most  voters,  \ 
even  on  questions  of  great  public  interest.  It  has  ; 
seemed  to  me  that  this  very  great  evil  must  be  re-  \ 
moved,  if  at  all,  mainly  through  the  influence  of  our  i 
public  schools.  In  consequence,  both  before  general  -j 
audiences  and  before  gatherings  of  teachers  I  have  ; 
often  taken  the  opportunity  to  discuss  the  question  I 
of  training  for  citizenship.  i 

Every  one  interested  in  good  government  must  have  \ 
been  gratified  by  noticing  how  prominent  this  sub-  j 
ject  has  lately  become  in  discussions  among  teachers;  | 
but  the  schools  doubtless  still  lack  much,  and  they  may  \ 
be  of  far  greater  service  in  the  future  than  they  are  at  j 
present,  provided  the  teachers  work  intelligently  together  \ 
toward  this  end,  the  promotion  of  good  citizenship.  ] 
Every  subject  taught  in  the  common  schools  will  con-  i 
tribute  to  this  purpose,  if  the  teachers  only  keep  it  in  > 
mind  and  so  organize  their  work  as  to  carry  it  out.  ] 
Moreover,  in  no  other  way  can  the  burden  of  our  over-  i 
crowded  curriculum  be  so  much  lightened  and  the  in-  j 
terest  of  pupils  and  parents  be  so  easily  aroused  and  re-  \ 
tained  as  by  careful  work  toward  the  unification  of  the  | 
curriculum  around  the  central  idea  of  social  service.         ' 


PREFACE.  Vii 

It  would  be  extremely  useful  if  the  teachers  of  any 
school  system,  through  reading  circles  or  otherwise, 
could  arrange  their  subjects  harmoniously  with  this  end 
in  view,  each  making  his  own  subject  teach  citizenship 
from  its  own  view-point,  so  that  the  work  of  each  teacher 
would  supplement  that  of  every  other.  In  the  higher 
grades  where  special  teachers  of  separate  subjects  are 
employed,  those  teaching  arithmetic,  for  example,  would 
do  well  to  work  out  a  series  of  lessons  adapted  to  local 
economic  and  social  conditions,  so  that,  while  suited 
to  the  teaching  of  arithmetical  principles,  the  lessons 
would  also  contribute  to  the  work  in  history,  geography, 
literature  and  science.  The  teachers  in  geography,  in 
the  same  way,  should  prepare  a  series  of  lessons  that 
would  be  of  service  to  the  classes  in  history,  literature, 
and  mathematics,  while  the  teachers  of  history,  liter- 
ature, and  science  should  so  plan  their  work  as  not 
only  to  bring  out  the  full  value  of  those  subjects  from 
the  social  point  of  view,  but  also,  by  so  doing,  make 
each  subject  supplement  the  others.  Adaptability  to 
human  service  is  the  element  in  each  case  which  will 
unify  them. 

In  the  lower  grades  where  all  classes  are  taught  by 
one  teacher,  such  harmonious  working  of  the  different 
subjects  can  readily  enough  be  planned,  provided  due 
care  is  taken  and  each  subject  is  considered  from  the 
point  of  view  of  its  relations  to  social  life. 


Viii  PREFACE. 

If  this  book  can  contribute  in  even  a  slight  degree 
towards  giving  our  teachers  the  view-point  of  social  and 
political  betterment  as  their  chief  aim  in  teaching,  I 
shall  be  content. 

I  wish  to  thank  the  publishers  of  the  various  period- 
icals in  which  several  of  these  addresses  and  essays  have 
appeared  for  permission  to  republish  them  here,  and 
particularly  to  express  my  obligations  to  Dr.  Charles 
McMurry  who  has  read  several  of  the  essays  and  has 
made  upon  them  most  valuable  criticisms  and  sugges- 
tions. 

J.  W.  J. 
Cornell  University, 

Ithaca,  New  TorL 
February,  190S. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTBR  PAOS 

I.  Training  for  Citizenship 3 

First  supplement  of  the  Second  Year-book  of  the 
National  Herbart  Society.  Paper  discussed  at 
the  Herbart  Section  of  the  Department  of  Super- 
intendence of  the  National  Educational  Asso- 
ciation, 1897. 

II.  The  Social  Basis  of  Education 39 

Address  before  the  Department  of  Education,  Cornell 
University.  Published  in  the  Educational 
Review,  December,  1905. 

III.  The  Making  of  Citizens 75 

Address  at  several  places  in  Illinois,  Indiana,  and 
New  York,  especially  in  1889-1890. 

IV.  Relation  of  the  Public  Schools  to  Business 97 

Address  before  the  Merchants  Club,  Chicago,  Feb- 
ruary 9, 1901 ;  before  the  Liberal  Club,  Buffalo, 
March  1,  1901. 

V.  Education  for  Commerce  :  the  Far  East 131 

Address  at  the  University  Convocation,  June  29, 
1905.    North  American  Review,  October,  1905. 

VI,  Free  Speech  in  American  Universities 153 

Written  1897  at  the  time  of  the  resignation  of  Presi- 
dent E.  B.  Andrews  from  Brown  University,  but 
not  published. 

VII.  Critique  of  Educational  Values 171 

Educational  Review,  January,  1892. 

VIII.  Policy  of  the  State  toward  Education 199 

Impromptu  discussion  at  University  Convocation, 
Albany,  July  5,  1894. 

IX.  School-Book  Legislation 207 

Political  Science  Quarterly,  March,  1891. 
ix 


CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 


UNIVERSITY  ) 
or  / 


CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE 
SCHOOLS 

I. 

TRAINING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP  * 

'*  The  true  measure  of  a  nation's  success  is  the  amount  that  it 
has  contributed  to  the  knowledge,  the  moral  energy,  the  intel- 
lectual happiness  and  the  spiritual  hope  and  consolation  of  man- 
kind."—Lowell. 

The  veteran  pedagogue  is  inclined  to  smile — rather 
pathetically  to  be  sure,  when  he  thinks  of  the  need  for 
better  citizens — at  the  expression,  "  campaign  of  educa- 
tion,'^ which  has  become  so  popular  now-a-days.  The 
efforts  of  some  16,000,000  voters  to  "  cram  "  on  the 
money  question,  the  tariff,  expansion,  or  the  open  door 
in  the  Far  East  in  the  short  space  of  three  or  four 
months  with  the  aid  of  "coaches,"  each  of  whom  is 
bent  on  giving  a  warped  view  of  the  subject,  are  praise- 
worthy and  worth  far  more  than  the  millions  of  dollars 
spent  in  the  process;  but  it  is  a  misnomer  to  call  the 
process  education.  The  more  thoughtful  voters  will  get 
much  trustworthy  and  valuable  information  as  a  result 
of  the  special  interest  of  the  time ;  the  rousing  of  the  at- 

♦  First  Supplement  of  the  second  Year-Book  of  the  National 
Herbart  Society.  Paper  discussed  at  the  Herbart  Section  of  the 
Department  of  Superintendence  of  the  National  Educational 
Association,  1897. 

3 


4  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

tention  of  so  many  to  the  importance  of  public  ques- 
tions, and  the  stimulation  to  think  of  the  citizen's  duties 
are  of  inestimable  value  in  kind,  though  wofuUy  inade- 
quate in  degree.  But  back  of  the  whole  process  is  the 
tacit  assumption  that  what  our  citizens  chiefly  need  is 
specific  information  on  the  issue  of  the  day,  while  such 
information  is  in  fact  of  minor  importance. 

The  whole  matter  of  the  education  of  adult  voters  is 
made  doubly  difficult,  because,  in  the  first  place,  teach- 
ers who  are  both  willing  and  fit  are  hard  to  find — the 
willingness,  judging  from  our  campaign  speakers,  usu- 
ally existing  in  inverse  ratio  to  the  fitness — and,  in  the 
second  place,  the  voters  rarely  feel  sufficiently  the  need 
of  training.  That  most  difficult  and  complex  of  trades, 
statecraft,  most  voters,  except  the  true  statesmen,  think 
they  know  by  intuition.  With  lack  of  knowledge,  too, 
on  the  subject,  is  often  united  the  blindest  prejudice  and 
even  pride  in  this  prejudice.  How  often,  for  example, 
we  hear  an  aged  voter  boasting  that  he  has  voted  his 
party  ticket  straight  for  forty  or  fifty  years,  priding 
himself  on  the  fact,  though  unconscious  that  it  is  a  fact, 
that  he  has  so  long  nursed  his  prejudices.  Men,  other- 
wise sensible,  see  only  wisdom  and  patriotism  in  their 
own  party,  in  their  opponents  only  folly  and  corruption ; 
only  good  in  the  institutions  of  their  own  country,  only 
evil  in  those  of  a  foreign  nation,  though  such  short- 
sightedness checks  progress. 

It  is  encouraging,  however,  to  reflect  that  there  is 
no  more  hopeful  sign  of  social  progress  than  the  in- 
creasing sensitiveness  of  all  classes  of  people  regarding 
social  evils,  whether  these  evils  be  the  physical  suffering 


TRAINING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP.  6 

of  the  poor,  or  moral  corruption,  as  shown  in  political 
frauds  or  impure  lives  of  individuals.  Even  fifty 
years  ago,  one  might  take  too  much  strong  drink  on 
festive  occasions  and  expect  to  be  easily  excused  for  the 
folly;  one  hundred  years  ago  a  man  might  be  as  im- 
moral in  his  private  life  with  little  danger  of  public  con- 
demnation. Only  within  late  years  have  men  been 
shocked  and  disgusted  at  the  thought  of  a  lottery  or  a 
prize  fight  or  rat  pit,  or  opposed  to  the  employment  of 
corporal  punishment  for  misdemeanors.  Our  isTew  Eng- 
land ancestors  who  were  so  horrified  by  the  sin  of  Sab- 
bath-breaking or  blasphemy,  or  disobedience  to  parents 
as  to  punish  these  crimes  with  death,  were  still  ready 
to  look  calmly  at  a  wretched  neighbor  groaning  in  the 
pillory  while  his  tongue  was  pierced  with  a  red  hot 
iron  or  his  nostrils  slit  with  a  keen-edged  knife.  The 
generation  that  cares  for  over-worked  horses  and  stray 
dogs  and  cats  is  put  by  this  sensitiveness  on  the  highway 
to  social  improvement  of  one  kind.  The  generation  that 
has  produced  the  great  temperance  reform  movements ; 
that  has  brought  woman  into  the  foreground  in  social 
reforms,  as  is  shown  in  the  powerful  influence  over  legis- 
lation exerted  by  the  W.  C.  T.  U.  and  kindred  organiza- 
tions, has  in  another  way  made  a  great  stride  toward  the 
millennial  civilization  of  which  all  good  men  have 
dreamed  since  the  days  of  Plato,  though  no  one  realizes 
better  than  these  dreamers  how  far  off  is  still  that  mil- 
lennial age.  In  the  fight  against  either  pauperism  or 
vice,  all  thinking  people  who  realize  how  slowly  social 
changes  must  come,  know  that  all  reforms,  if  they  are 
to  be  wide-reaching  and  permanent,  must  come  through 


6  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS, 

the  education  of  the  people  into  an  appreciation  of  what 
is  highest  and  best  in  life,  and  into  the  firmness  of 
character  required  of  every  good  man. 

As  the  dwellers  in  our  tenement  houses,  many  of 
them,  do  not  know  without  instruction — as  experience 
shows — that  bath-tubs  have  other  purposes  than  to  be 
used  as  coal-bins,  so  many  of  our  citizens  who  have  been 
best  trained  intellectually,  need  still  to  be  educated  in 
the  art  of  wise  giving  and  perhaps  still  wiser  withhold- 
ing ;  to  be  not  merely  told  about,  but  to  be  trained  into 
the  proper  ways  of  controlling  city  councils  and  legis- 
latures— in  short  to  be  schooled  into  the  higher  citizen- 
ship. 

The  purpose  of  training  our  citizens,  whether  by 
campaign  speeches  or  in  schools,  is  to  secure  better  serv- 
ice for  the  state,  greater  willingness  and  intelligence  in 
curing  social  evils,  greater  zeal  in  promoting  social  good. 

But  before  one  can  speak  intelligently  of  the  kind  of 
training  that  our  citizens  need,  one  must  consider  some- 
what carefully  the  nature  of  social  evils  and  of  social 
reforms.  Such  reforms  must  all  be  effected  either  (1) 
by  improving  the  opinions  and  habits  and  characters  of 
the  individual  members  of  society,  or  (2)  by  changing 
for  the  better  the  relations  existing  between  different 
persons  and  classes  and  institutions  in  society. 

Hitherto,  most  efforts  of  social  reformers  have  been 
directed  toward  the  reform  of  the  individual  by  im- 
proving his  moral  character  or  habits,  and  only  here  and 
there,  in  an  unsystematic  way,  have  efforts  been  directed 
toward  improving  his  relations  with  others.  Yet  pos- 
sibly the  greater  number  of  our  social  evils  come  from 


TRAINING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP.  7 

mal-adjustments  in  social  relations.  This  undue  em- 
phasis that  has  been  often  laid  upon  the  faults  of  in- 
dividuals may  be  my  excuse  for  emphasizing  first  the 
social  evils  that  arise  from  social  misfits.  I  do  not 
ignore  the  others  by  any  means. 

There  is,  of  course,  a  constant  tendency  for  social  in- 
stitutions of  all  kinds  to  adjust  themselves  to  social 
needs.  The  environment  will  in  the  long  run  modify 
the  individual,  unless  the  individual  has  power  to  change 
the  environment ;  but,  always,  as  society  moves  on  into 
new  habits,  old  institutions  will  be  found  unfit  for  use 
and  much  suffering  must  be  endured  in  making  the 
needed  transition  from  old  to  new.  When,  for  exam- 
ple, late  in  the  last  century  and  early  in  this  the  spin- 
ning-jenny and  the  power-loom  were  coming  into  gen- 
eral use  in  England,  the  hand-looms  in  the  cottages  lost 
their  value,  and  the  hands  of  the  cottage  weavers  were 
forced  to  rest  in  idleness.  The  despair  of  the  hungry 
whom  the  spirit  of  progress  was  starving  to  death  led  in 
many  instances  to  riot;  but  their  despair  and  passion 
availed  nothing.  The  abler  were  forced  to  adopt  the 
new  methods ;  the  feebler,  the  more  ignorant,  died :  but 
industrial  society  moved  on  through  this  suffering  and 
evil  into  a  better  condition  than  it  had  ever  before  en- 
joyed. It  was  not  the  characters  of  the  individual  riot- 
ers and  murderers  that  especially  needed  reforming;  the 
need  was  rather  for  some  device  to  adjust  quickly  the 
economic  machine  thrown  by  the  new  inventions  for  the 
time  being  out  of  gear. 

We  must  realize  that  like  evils  are  always  with  us; 
must  always  be  with  us  if  economic  society  is  to  im- 


8  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

prove,  unless  we  can  devise  a  way  of  rapid  adjustment 
to  changing  circumstances.  The  last  twenty  years  has 
seen  a  revolution  no  less  complete  than  that  of  the  weav- 
ing industry.  The  rise  of  our  great  combinations  in 
industry — the  Standard  Oil  Trust,  the  Sugar  Combine, 
the  Telegraph  Monopoly,  and  the  hundreds  of  sister 
savers  of  expense — has  brought  its  evils.  We  no  longer, 
it  is  true,  except  in  rare  cases  through  ignorance  of  the 
suffering,  permit  our  fellow  men  to  starve;  but  many 
a  manufacturer  or  dealer  in  these  monopolized  products 
has  had  his  competitive  business  forced  out  of  his  hands ; 
thousands  of  the  non-employed,  thrown  out  of  work  by 
the  monopolies,  have  been  driven  into  pauperism. 
Monopolies  at  times  prevent  bankruptcy  of  the  monopo- 
lists, but  multiply  bankruptcies  of  their  competitors. 

Legal  institutions  suffer  from  like  evils,  and  bring 
like  evils  upon  society.  Within  thirty  years  a  whole 
body  of  law  dealing  with  inter-state  commerce  has  been 
created.  Under  the  old  law  cities  were  built  up  or 
ruined  to  suit  the  needs  or  wishes  of  railroad  directors. 
Sometimes  they  bought  up  a  tract  of  land,  located 
towns  on  it,  gave  it  special  rates  to  help  it,  and  reaped 
the  harvest  they  had  sown.  A  business  man  here  was 
lifted  into  affluence,  his  rival  swept  from  the  industrial 
field  by  the  favor  of  a  good-natured,  or  corrupt,  freight 
agent — and  all  because  our  commercial  laws  were  be- 
hind the  times.  Many  a  college  or  charitable  institu- 
tion finds  itself  hampered  by  the  terms  of  an  old-time 
legacy,  framed  to  suit  the  needs  of  a  bygone  day ;  many 
a  city  groans  under  the  baleful  influence  of  the  Dart- 
mouth College  case,  which  recognized  an  outworn  con- 


TRAINING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP.  9 

tract  as  good  as  new.  Our  courts  still  permit  at  times 
street  railways,  or  other  corporations,  under  old  con- 
tracts to  plunder  cities,  while  brand  new  laws,  also, 
and  new  decisions  made  to  remedy  old  evils,  like  new 
machinery,  bring  their  hardships. 

Again,  the  slow  action  of  courts — made  slow  by  tech- 
nical rules,  fitted  in  most  cases  to  do  exact  justice — are 
not  suited  to  the  needs  of  many  new  communities  in 
cases  of  extreme  hardship.  So  vigilance  committees 
and  Judge  Lynch  swing  to  the  nearest  tree  the  horse- 
thief  or  riddle  with  bullets  the  violator  of  woman's 
honor.  Such  means  seem  in  these  exceptional  cases  at 
times  the  only  remedies. 

So  it  is,  also,  in  political  institutions  the  world  over. 
Our  former  methods  of  voting  were  well  enough  adapted 
to  local  government  in  most  rural  communities  where 
they  were  first  employed.  They  were  not  then  abused ; 
but  before  they  were  changed  they  had  resulted  in  so 
vast  a  system  of  corruption  that  money  given  by 
reputable  citizens  in  New  York  bought  village  votes  in 
Indiana  and  Connecticut  by  the  thousands,  and  in  many 
cases  had  so  completely  demoralized  the  voters  that  the 
traffic  in  votes  was  looked  upon  by  many  of  the  more 
ignorant  and  thoughtless  as  a  proper  means  of  income. 
"  Is  not  my  vote  mine  ?  May  I  not  dispose  of  it  as  I 
please  ?  "  Even  many  thoughtful  people  do  not  realize 
that  the  ballot  is  a  public  trust. 

Most  of  us  believe,  I  suppose,  in  popular  suffrage; 
but  we  cannot  blink  the  fact  that  the  ballot  in  the  hands 
of  the  negro  in  reconstruction  days  drove  into  bank- 
ruptcy some  of  our  southern  states,  furnished  a  trav- 


10  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

esty  on  legislatures  and  legislators  perhaps  never  else- 
where equalled  in  a  civilized  country,  and  finally  drove 
the  whites  into  the  armed  revolution  of  the  Ku  Klux — 
an  act  perhaps  not  so  discreditable  to  their  manhood  and 
sense  of  justice  as  would  have  been  peaceful  submis- 
sion to  the  forms  of  law  forced  upon  them.  When  the 
representatives  of  the  people  supply  themselves  with 
costly  viands  and  elegantly  furnished  rooms  for  them- 
selves and  disreputable  friends  at  the  public  expense, 
free  men  will  revolt. 

Few  in  that  contest  on  either  side  could  be  much 
blamed.  Social  evils  often  do  not  impute  conscious 
guilt  to  individuals;  otherwise  the  injunction  to  love 
one's  neighbor  would  be  more  difficult  to  heed.  Doubt- 
less in  reconstruction  days  Congress  acted  with  good  in- 
tentions, though  probably  with  some  natural  and  par- 
donable partisan  feeling;  and  surely  no  one  can  blame 
the  negroes  for  their  failure  or  for  their  personal  unfit- 
ness to  fulfill  their  task.  There  was  a  misfit — that  was 
all.  Institutions  and  people  were  not  in  harmony. 
Corruption,  then  anarchy,  then  an  aristocracy — better 
said  an  oligarchy — ^were  the  natural  outcome  of  the  con- 
ditions. On  one  side  the  whites  had  outgrown  their  old 
institution  of  slavery ;  on  the  other,  the  new  institution 
of  free  government  was  fit  for  a  more  advanced  people 
than  the  negroes,  or  for  a  more  homogeneous  people 
than  those  trying  to  live  together  in  peace.  To  both 
sides  serious  evil  was  the  result. 

In  our  legislatures,  examples  of  the  same  kind  are 
numerous.  Most  of  the  members  in  private  life  are 
honest,  well-meaning  men,  who  would  like  to  give  our 


TRAINING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP.  H 

state  excellent  government.  Unfortunately,  the  cir- 
cumstances of  their  elections,  the  nature  of  the  tasks 
that  they  find  themselves  called  upon  to  do,  the  close- 
ness with  which  they  are  held  to  the  work  desired  by 
the  party  chiefs,  the  pressure  upon  them  to  get  through 
local  bills  to  please  their  constituents,  prevent  them 
from  doing  much  that  is  of  general  interest,  and  soon 
lead  them  to  consider  an  independent  member  with 
earnest  opinions  on  measures  of  general  interest  as  un- 
practical and  visionary. 

At  election  times  a  wealthy  corporation  makes  a 
large  contribution  to  a  campaign  fund.  After  election 
the  party  leaders  feel  under  obligations.  If  a  bill  comes 
up  that  affects  the  interest  of  that  corporation,  a  hint 
to  the  campaign  chief,  the  boss,  will  bring  word  to  every 
legislator,  if  need  be,  who  has  been  nominated  and 
elected  under  the  influence  of  the  party  organization. 
He  is  told  that  the  interests  of  the  party  demand  his 
vote.  He  may  feel  that  the  bill  is  on  the  face  of  it  det- 
rimental to  the  state.  He  may  not  see  how  it  is  for 
the  interest  of  his  party;  but  his  chief  says  that  it  is  of 
vital  interest.  He  believes  in  his  party;  he  is  under 
obligations  to  the  chief ;  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten  he  will 
yield.  Most  of  us  would.  Again,  some  worthy  insti- 
tution in  his  district,  say  a  state  school  for  the  feeble- 
minded, needs  state  aid  and  ought  to  have  it.  He  in- 
troduces his  bill.  Other  members  know  little  about  it, 
but  other  members  also  have  bills  calling  for  appropria- 
tions, many  of  them  not  worthy,  but  popular  in  their  dis- 
tricts. They  ask  him  for  his  vote,  plead  the  personal 
necessity   to   themselves   of   passing   their   bills.      He 


12  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

needs  their  vote  for  his  bill.  He  votes  for  theirs,  care- 
ful perhaps  not  to  inquire  too  closely  into  their  merits 
lest  his  conscience  should  prick  him  too  hard.  Thus, 
too  many  bad  measures  pass.  We  blame  our  represen- 
tatives ;  but  many  of  us  would  do  no  better.  The  truth 
is  that  our  political  machine  needs  rebuilding  in  many 
parts. 

Even  in  religious  institutions  changes  come  that  bring 
often  untold  suifering.  I  need  only  refer  to  the  perse- 
cutions of  the  Middle  Ages  and  the  Reformation.  Even 
to-day  men  burn,  though  not  at  the  stake,  because  they 
think  in  advance  of  their  time.  Many  a  person  joining 
a  church  in  his  younger  days  finds  that,  as  his  sympa- 
thies broaden,  as  his  range  of  spiritual  vision  extends, 
he  no  longer  places  the  same  emphasis  on  certain  dog- 
mas as  before.  His  fellow  church  members  may  con- 
sider him  unfaithful  to  his  duty ;  he  may  even  be  made 
to  feel  that  he  has  wounded  grievously  the  hearts  of 
those  most  dear  to  him — ^but  he  cannot  go  back.  He 
may,  in  his  suffering,  impatiently  blame  his  critics  for 
their  narrowness ;  but  this  is  equally  unjust.  They  can- 
not come  with  him.  No  one  is  to  blame.  The  religious 
institution  is  not  adjusted  to  his  needs.  When  he 
reaches  the  height  from  which  he  can  overlook  the 
whole  field,  he  will  see  that,  as  there  must  be  different 
political  or  social  groups  to  suit  the  various  political  or 
social  beliefs,  so  must  there  be  various  religious  groups 
to  fit  the  changing  religious  needs.  The  period  of  tran- 
sition from  one  group  to  another,  if  one  cannot  be 
tolerant  enough  to  feel  at  home  in  either,  is  a  time  of 
suffering.     The  time  of  a  general  shifting  in  belief^  a^ 


TRAINING  FOB  CITIZENSHIP.  13 

in  the  16th  century,  is  a  time  of  revolution.  Can  this 
in  any  way  be  avoided  ? 

Conditions  are  not  materially  different  in  what  we 
call  society  in  the  narrower  sense  of  that  word.  Most 
of  us  are  born  into  a  certain  place  in  the  social  life  of 
our  town  or  city.  So  long  as  we  stay  there  and  are 
like  our  companions,  we  are  comfortable ;  but  if,  through 
added  wealth,  or  higher  intellectual  training,  or  changed 
political  positions,  we  attempt  to  change  our  places,  dis- 
comfort ensues.  Still  greater  discomfort  comes,  per- 
haps, if  through  misfortune  or  disgrace  or  poverty  or 
love  for  evil,  we  take  what  is  considered  a  downward 
step  in  the  social  scale.  Whenever  we  are  unsuited  to 
our  social  surroundings,  we  suffer. 

But  social  and  personal  discomforts,  evils,  may  also 
arise  and  often  do  arise  likewise  from  what  may  be 
called  personal  disharmonies.  We  sometimes  meet  per- 
sons, who  from  birth,  training,  social  experiences,  man- 
ner, etc.,  would  seem  to  be  suited  to  us  and  whom  we 
wish  to  know  well,  but  with  whom  we  are  always  at 
odds.  Even  dear  friends  of  our  childhood  days  some- 
times as  years  go  by  grow  away  from  us  or  we  from 
them  as  changes  creep  into  our  lives. 

All  these  evils,  personal  and  institutional,  when  we 
look  closely  for  their  causes,  throw  much  light  on  the 
nature  of  society  and  point  out  the  necessary  nature  of 
social  reforms.  Aside  from  lack  of  conscience  in  the 
individual,  the  evils  are  all  alike  in  essence ;  all  demand 
individual  or  institutional  adaptation.  Whether  the 
evil  be  economic,  as  in  the  case  of  the  hand  weavers, 
when  power  looms  were  bought ;  or  political,  or  legal,  or 


14  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

religious — in  all  cases  there  has  been  on  one  side  a  hu- 
man mind  or  spirit  out  of  harmony  with  its  surround- 
ings. Either  the  individual  has  changed,  or  his  sur- 
roundings have  changed,  and  the  man,  under  the  dom- 
ination of  mental  and  spiritual  inertia^  is  unable  to  will 
a  change  in  himself  to  meet  the  new  conditions ;  or  if  he 
makes  the  change,  he  suffers  because  others  do  not 
change  with  him.  As  one  looks  into  the  faces  of  men 
suffering  from  lack  of  work  and  finds  each  of  them 
looking  for  the  special  work  that  he  has  been  trained  to 
do,  and  unwilling  or  unable  to  turn  his  hand  to  other 
things,  one  begins  to  realize  the  social  significance  of 
what  may  well  be  called  psychical  or  mental  inertia. 
Still  more  pitiable,  if  possible,  does  this  mental  inertia 
appear  when  one  sees  men  year  after  year — ^generation 
after  generation  sometimes — clinging  to  the  cherished 
name  of  a  political  party,  and  worshiping  it  for  what 
it  has  done,  as  if,  when  the  issues  of  the  day  had  changed 
and  even  the  personnel  of  the  membership,  the  party  re- 
mained the  same.  Most  men  are  too  weak,  too  care- 
less, or  too  lazy  mentally  to  readjust  their  political  be- 
liefs to  the  changing  needs  of  the  day. 

Even  in  spiritual  or  religious  or  educational  matters, 
conditions  are  much  the  same.  The  great  mass  of  peo- 
ple rest  in  the  places  into  which  in  early  days  their 
parents,  the  circumstances  of  their  lives,  their  early 
training  have  placed  them,  or  they  follow  blindly  the 
leader  whom  they  have  chosen.  If  great  preachers  and 
teachers  could  use  their  influence  over  their  followers' 
opinions  for  personal  gain,  we  should  soon  have  religious 
and  educational  "  bosses,"  as  we  have  political  bosses. 


TRAINING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP,  15 

How  many  teachers  gulp  educational  doctrine ;  how  few 
make  good  doctrine,  or  even  assimilate  it  and  use  it 
wisely  and  independently!  One  feels  tempted  to  con- 
clude that  the  most  powerful  social  influence  is  mental 
inertia,  spiritual  laziness.  It  tends  toward  stability; 
but  it  is  the  stability  of  stagnation,  of  death.  Social 
reform  demands  a  force  that  will  quicken  the  minds 
of  men ;  will  render  them  more  adaptable  to  their  sur- 
roundings, more  ready  to  fit  themselves  to  the  needs  of 
the  day. 

But,  let  us  note  for  a  moment,  too,  besides  the  mental 
inertia  of  the  multitude  the  mental  force  of  the  inventor 
or  the  thinker,  an  activity  that  often  causes  suffering, 
though  it  is  an  inevitable  preliminary  to  social  improve- 
ment. Mental  slowness,  as  we  have  seen,  may  cause 
the  starvation  of  men  and  families  who  cannot  readily 
learn  to  tend  a  power  loom ;  but  the  inventor  of  the  ma- 
chine, also,  till  his  machine  is  established  in  popular 
favor,  may  well  have  made  himself  miserable,  because 
he  realized  the  imperfections  of  the  old  loom  on  which 
he  was  compelled  to  waste  his  time.  Nay,  he  may 
even  starve  before  he  can  convince  his  fellows  of  the 
value  of  his  invention.  His  mental  keenness  may  bring 
him  discomfort  at  first,  and  will  cause  his  fellows  suffer- 
ing later,  though  ultimately  it  will  bless  the  world.  ITot 
only  did  Galileo  and  Luther  suffer  for  their  advanced 
ideas,  but  they  caused  suffering  to  thousands  of  others 
by  setting  the  pace  of  life  faster  than  common  men 
could  follow;  and  yet  by  their  originality  they  became 
two  of  the  world's  greatest  benefactors. 

It  is  a  painful  reflection  that,  while  we  can  advance 


16  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS, 

only  bj  the  aid  of  advanced  thinkers,  jet  they  and  we 
must  suffer  in  our  efforts  to  harmonize  our  views.  Pop- 
ular government,  of  course,  demands  these  changes ;  and 
we  can  never  avoid,  we  can  only  minimize  the  dishar- 
mony. A  large  part  of  the  work  of  the  conscientious 
legislator  is  the  adaptation  of  good  bills  to  suit  the  whims 
of  stupid  people. 

The  remedy  for  these  evils  lies  in  two  directions:  (1) 
The  leader  himself  may  have  so  clear  a  vision  of  the 
future  of  his  work  and  of  its  ultimate  success  that  he 
overlooks  the  present  suffering  to  himself  and  to 
others  for  the  sake  of  the  future  benefit  of  the  world; 
(2)  He  may  see  into  the  nature  of  society  and  its  tend- 
encies so  clearly  that  he  may  bring  about  more  readily 
than  is  common  a  readjustment  of  the  institution  itself. 

If  now  the  evils  in  our  society  are  to  be  removed,  in 
good  part,  only  by  increasing  the  power  of  our  workers 
in  the  industrial  field  to  adapt  themselves  readily  to 
their  conditions,  no  matter  what  new  circumstances  may 
arise;  or,  in  the  political,  or  legal,  or  religious  field, 
either  to  adapt  themselves  to  circumstances,  or  to  modify 
conditions  by  changing  institutions,  political,  legal, 
social,  one  can  see  how  completely  social  reforms  rest 
upon  education  of  the  citizen.  If  our  schools  and  col- 
leges cannot  now  give  the  kinds  of  education  needed, 
we  certainly  must  have  wide-spread  educational  reform 
within  and  outside  the  schools. 

For  the  hand-worker,  perhaps  the  best  training  that 
can  be  given  to  secure  adaptability  in  his  industrial 
activity  is  that  of  a  good  manual  training  school.  But 
the  question  of  educational  reforms  even  for  the  indus- 


TRAINING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP.  l7 

trial  life  involves  far  more  than  manual  training,  good 
as  that  may  be  in  plan  and  practice.  Not  merely  skill 
in  turning  one's  hand  to  any  kind  of  mechanical  vs^ork 
is  needed ;  but  of  vastly  more  consequence  is  the  spirit 
of  adaptability,  readiness  to  do  as  best  one  can  whatever 
offers — the  spirit  of  independence  and  self-respect  that 
implies  a  willingness  to  stand,  by  one's  self,  if  need  be, 
for  one's  own  opinions,  and  to  do  one's  duty  under  all 
circumstances.  Laboring  men  often  refuse  to  adapt 
themselves  to  new  conditions  from  fear  of  the  opinion 
of  their  trade-unions,  or  from  foolish  pride  which 
hinders  them  from  stooping  to  tasks  requiring  less  skill 
than  does  their  own.  They  may  be  justified  at  times. 
I  do  not  overlook  their  argument  that  one  may  become 
permanently  classified  with  the  less  skilled  laborers. 
Politicians  hesitate  to  act  freely  for  fear  that  they  may 
alienate  their  party  votes,  or — worse  yet — the  party 
boss.  Voters  do  not  vote  against  the  party  for  fear  of 
being  called  irregular.  Preachers  hesitate  to  speak  the 
whole  truth  for  fear  of  their  congregations.  Congrega- 
tions hesitate  to  think  freely  from  fear  of  the  preacher 
and  elders.  But  there  must  be  this  personal  fearlessness 
and  independence,  if  men  are  to  adapt  themselves  to 
social  institutions  or  to  adapt  social  institutions  to  their 
needs.  They  must  see  clearly,  decide  independently  and 
impartially  or  society  must  suffer.  This  involves,  as 
I  understand  it,  in  many  cases,  the  setting  up  of  new 
and  higher  ideals  of  life,  and  habituating  our  citizens 
to  strive  for  these  ideals  instead  of  for  their  present  ones. 
Again,  as  men  need  to  have  personal  adaptability  and 
independence,  they  must  also  have  tolerance  for  inde- 


18  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

pendence  in  others,  if  social  evils  are  to  be  overcome. 
If  I  ask  that  in  religious  matters  I  be  allowed  to  think 
freely  and  to  live  in  peace  without  a  creed,  I  shall  only 
bring  lack  of  harmony  into  society,  unless  I  am  equally 
ready  to  let  my  Christian  brother  who  wishes  to  do 
so,  keep  his  creed,  without  calling  him  narrow  or  despis- 
ing him.  If  in  politics  I  demand  the  right  to  stand 
as  a  democrat  or  republican  or  mugwump,  I  may  do  so 
with  advantage  to  our  political  institutions  if  I  let  my 
neighbor  take  another  position  with  no  feeling  that  he 
is  not  doing  what  is  right.  Until  I  am  thus  tolerant,  I 
am  rendering  political  changes  difficult,  and  am  forcing 
disharmony  into  society  in  a  way  that  will  have  evil 
consequences.  The  free  use  of  the  epithets,  *'  anarchist, 
revolutionist,''  on  the  one  hand,  and  "  robber,  conspira- 
tor," on  the  other,  in  political  campaigns  do  not  tend 
toward  either  harmony  or  remolding  of  institutions. 
It  is  irrational  and  of  evil  influence. 

Still  further,  if  I  am  to  work  out  reforms  of  onp 
social  evils,  I  must  have  a  thoro  knowledge  of  our 
social  institutions,  so  that  I  may  not  merely  fit  myself 
to  them  so  far  as  I  can,  and  let  my  fellow  citizen  shape 
his  course  without  hindrance;  but,  also,  that  I  may 
shape  the  institutions  themselves  to  meet  the  needs  of 
the  times.  When,  for  example,  public  opinion  is  chang- 
ing (let  us  say  on  the  temperance  question),  a  conflict 
is  sure  to  arise  between  the  present  law^nd  the  new 
habits.  The  student  of  social  institution  should  be 
quick  to  see  the  coming  change,  to  know  the  new  form 
of  law  that  will  be  in  harmony  with  the  new  opinion, 
and  to  make  his  influence  felt  in  bringing  about  the  pas- 


TRAINING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP.  19 

sage  of  the  law.  Legislators  usually  seek  to  follow  pub- 
lic opinion,  and  practically  they  must  not  go  too  far  in 
advance  of  it ;  but  we  shall  not  only  hasten  progress,  but 
also  more  nearly  secure  social  harmony,  if  our  laws 
somewhat  precede  and  thus  help  to  mold  public  opinion 
into  definite  form.  The  legislator  ought  to  lead  as  well 
as  to  follow. 

Political  corruption  in  many  of  our  states  had 
reached  so  low  a  depth  that  outraged  public  sentiment 
demanded  its  cessation ;  but  the  temptation  was  still  so 
great  for  political  leaders  and  corrupt  voters  that  unless 
the  election  laws  were  changed  the  evil  would  continue 
and  society  suffer.  Men  with  a  knowledge  of  compara- 
tive legislation  were  soon  able  to  see  the  remedy,  and 
the  present  ballot  laws  in  most  of  our  states,  which 
greatly  lessen  the  evil,  have  been  the  result;  but  they 
will  be  continually  improved,  and  will  become  more  and 
more  successful  for  the  next  decade  as  the  public  learns 
to  know  them  better  and  to  appreciate  better  their 
value.  ^  #' 

Needed  reforms  will  always  come  in  time.  But  much 
suffering,  much  time  can  be  saved  by  an  understanding 
of  the  needed  changes  obtained  through  a  careful  study 
of  social  institutions.  For  this  special  knowledge  we 
must  rely  largely  on  our  educational  institutions.  Few 
of  them  can  now  furnish  it. 

But  besides  and  above  these  special  bits  of  political 
and  social  knowledge,  there  needs  to  be  an  ideal  of  the 
value  and  purpose  of  the  state.  That  should  be  taught 
specifically  to  all  our  voters,  in  all  our  schools;  and 
while  the   schools  should  teach  politics,   government, 


A 


20  ciriZEmmp  and  the  schools. 

patriotism,  the  nature  of  society  far  more  than  they  now 
do,  these  subjects  should  be  taught  as  living  realities, 
not  as  dead  forms. 

Much  time  is  now  given  to  the  subject  in  many  of  our 
schools,  but  little  that  is  of  much  value  is  generally 
taught.  Of  course  one  will  find  exceptions.  Usually 
the  skeleton  of  our  constitutional  law  is  given.  Our 
young  people  learn  the  names  of  the  offices,  the  length 
of  the  terms  of  officers,  the  kinds  of  duties  performed; 
but  often  they  do  not  learn  the  motive  forces  in  our  poli- 
tics, how  the  work  of  politics  is  really  done,  nor  what 
the  purpose  in  government  is  and  ought  to  be,  altho 
ne  may  note  improvement  in  late  years.  Sometimes 
the  effort  is  made  to  teach  patriotism  by  singing  patriotic 
hymns,  by  displaying  on  the  schoolhouse  on  anniversary 
days  our  nation's  flag,  by  reciting  the  victorious  deeds 
of  our  fathers,  by  conveying  to  the  children  the  thought 
that  this  country  has  wider  stretches  of  territory,  more 
fertile  fields,  more  millions  of  population,  a  better  gov- 
ernment than  have  other  countries.  Some  of  these 
things  are  good,  some  of  them  are  true,  but  few  of  them 
will  tend  strongly  to  cure  our  political  ills.  We  have 
enough  pride  in  country.  Devotion  to  our  country's 
good,  true  patriotism,  demands  that  with  impartial  eye 
we  see  also  our  country's  weaknesses.  We  may,  we  will, 
still  love  our  country  best,  even  if  we  do  not  think  that 
the  English  or  German  or  French  people  should  envy  us 
for  our  advantages.  They  will  not  do  so  even  if  we 
think  they  should.  They,  too,  have  been  blinded  by  fool- 
ish teaching,  and  they,  too,  see  only  their  superior  excel- 
lencies ;  for  each  nation  has  some  points  of  superiority. 


TRAINING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP,  21 

True  patriotism  demands  sacrifice,  if  need  be,  and  its 
spirit  is  not  that  of  a  braggart.  What  is  the  true  pur- 
pose of  a  country  that  should  be  taught  in  the  schools, 
and  that  once  breathed  into  the  hearts  of  our  citizens 
would  remove  the  factional  troubles  that  threaten  our 
country,  by  making  men  of  different  parties  none  the 
less  earnest,  but  more  tolerant,  and  more  unselfish? 
What  is  the  citizen's  ideal  ?  How  shall  we  measure  the 
value  of  a  country?  ISTo  modern  writer  has  expressed 
it  better  or  with  more  apt  illustration  than  James  Rus- 
sell Lowell  in  his  classic  essay  on  Democracy : 

''  The  true  value  of  a  country  must  be  weighed  in 
scales  more  delicate  than  the  balance  of  trade.  The 
garners  of  Sicily  are  empty  now,  but  the  bres  from  all 
climes  still  fetch  honey  from  the  tiny  garden  plot  of 
Theocritus.  On  a  map  of  the  world  you  may  cover 
Judea  with  your  thumb  and  Athens  with  a  finger-tip 
and  neither  of  them  figures  in  the  prices  current;  but 
they  still  lord  it  in  the  thought  and  action  of  every 
civilized  man.  Did  not  Dante  cover  with  his  hood  all 
that  was  Europe  six  hundred  years  ago,  and,  if  we  go 
back  one  hundred  years,  where  was  Germany,  outside  of 
Weimar?  Material  success  is  good,  but  only  as  the 
necessary  preliminary  to  better  things.  The  true  meas- 
ure of  a  niation's  success  is  the  amount  that  it  has  con- 
tributed to  the  knowledge,  the  moral  energy,  the  intel- 
lectual happiness,  the  spiritual  hope  and  consolation  of 
mankind.  There  is  no  other,  let  our  candidates  flatter 
us  as  they  may." 

If  we  can  have  an  educational  reform  that  will  lift 
the  political  ideal  of  our  young  people  to  this  height, 


22  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

we  shall  find  them  easily  adaptable  to  any  change  in 
mere  form  that  our  institutions  may  demand.  This  is 
of  chief  consequence.  The  methods  of  teaching  this  can 
be  found  applicable  in  history  or  literature — wherever 
the  thought  of  the  higher  purpose  of  the  state  appears. 

The  methods  of  fixing  such  ideals  regarding  man  and 
the  state  are  not  formal.  No  teacher  who  is  not  himself 
aglow  with  enthusiasm  for  refinement,  beauty,  sincerity, 
truth,  righteousness,  can  kindle  in  those  under  his  charge 
this  flame  of  the  higher  patriotism.  Formal  statements 
of  ethical  principles  count  for  little  toward  righteousness 
when  coming  from  the  lips  of  a  hypocrite.  A  cheer  for 
^^  Old  Glory  "  from  a  teacher  willing  to  buy  his  place 
by  political  service,  or  party  favoritism,  will  not  go  far 
toward  civic  culture.  All  teaching  of  the  highest  type 
is  personal,  is  the  benign  influence  of  a  stronger,  or 
purer,  or  riper  nature,  over  one  less  mature.  The  oc- 
casions for  the  exercise  of  this  influence  in  fixing  a 
child's  standard  of  honor,  may  readily  be  found.  In 
fairy  tales,  may  it  not  easily  be  seen  that  the  author's 
and  the  teacher's  sympathy  and  admiration  are  for  the 
worthy  ?  In  history,  a  fair  analysis  of  the  characters  of 
the  great  will  show  that  in  the  long  run  when  the  touch- 
stone of  the  historic  judgment  is  applied  only  worthy 
qualities  ring  true.  In  these  days  of  the  Napoleonic 
revival,  we  may  still  admire  the  wonderful  intellectual 
power,  the  superb  self-control  in  moments  of  supreme 
importance,  the  matchless  capacity  for  achievement 
along  almost  all  lines  of  activity  that  won  for  the  first 
Napoleon  the  name  of  the  "  Man  of  Destiny ;  "  but  no 
less  inevitable  is  the  judgment  of  contempt  for  his 


TRAINING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP.  23 

vanity,  treachery,  lying.  Even  a  little  child  of  right  im- 
pulses reading  his  life  with  a  discriminating  teacher 
would  pity  and  despise  his  weaknesses ;  for  the  normal 
instincts  of  children — of  adults  too  for  that  matter — are 
right.  The  same  child  would  as  readily  see  that  the 
chief  cause  of  Washington's  greatness  was  a  moral  one, 
which  gave  him  the  confidence  of  his  people.  The  great- 
ness of  Socrates,  Alexander,  Newton,  Darwin  is  based 
on  service  to  humanity. 

The  true  success  of  character  as  compared  with  the 
empty  gain  of  pelf  is  not  lost  sight  of  in  literature  or 
the  drama.  In  a  down-town  theater  with  an  audience  of 
roughs  and  criminals,  the  applause  is  always  hearty 
and  genuine  for  noble  sentiments,  and  the  villain  earns 
his  meed  of  hisses.  When  we  read  King  Lear,  no  one 
doubts  that  it  is  the  dead  Cordelia,  faithful,  honest, 
though  misunderstood,  who  has  really  succeeded,  and  not 
her  scheming  sisters.  Only  in  matters  of  real  life  when 
self  is  concerned  does  our  selfishness  lead  us  into  false 
judgments  and  our  ambitions  aid  us  to  condone  evil  in 
others.  Children  may  be  led  to  set  up  false  standards ; 
and  there  is  among  us  a  too  frequent  custom  into  which 
they  easily  fall  of  confounding  smartness  with  ability, 
and  the  attainment  of  money  or  ofiice  with  true  success. 
The  example  of  the  wise  teacher,  and  the  habit  of  mak- 
ing frank  judgments  on  the  right  side  in  literature 
and  history,  will  aid  greatly  in  making  sound  judgments 
in  life — especially  if  the  skillful  teacher,  without  too 
obvious  effort,  takes  occasion  to  raise  problems  for  the 
child  to  settle  which  will  serve  as  precedents  when  real 
tests  come  later  in  life. 


24:  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

Aside  from  personal  questions,  the  ideals  for  the  state 
may  in  the  same  way  be  touched.  Lowell  has  given 
in  a  pregnant  sentence  the  cause  of  the  greatness  of 
Athens  and  Judea ;  but  in  our  common  school  work  the 
material  is  abundant  for  like  judgments.  What  were 
the  elements  of  strength  in  the  various  colonies  ?  What 
led  to  success?  What  to  misfortune?  What  was  the 
influence  of  the  slave  trade  and  of  slavery  upon  the 
South  ?  Why  was  it  good  policy  to  pay  off  the  Kevolu- 
tionary  debt?  What  have  been  the  influences  of  the 
schools  as  compared  with  the  saloons  upon  our  civiliza- 
tion? The  working  out  of  the  answers  to  questions 
like  these  will  fix  the  right  ideals. 

In  higher  schools,  in  colleges  and  universities,  more 
specific  methods  of  political  reform,  comparative  legis- 
lation that  teaches  how  to  fit  the  experiences  of  other 
times  and  countries  to  our  own  needs,  can  be  well  taught, 
if  the  teacher  is  ready  and  willing  to  look  into  the  real 
evils  in  our  government,  to  point  them  out  with  im- 
partial hand,  to  hold  up  the  higher  ideal,  and  to  call  on 
his  classes  to  find  the  remedies.  It  is  essential,  espe- 
cially with  older  pupils,  to  see  the  facts  of  our  political 
life  as  they  are — evil  as  well  as  good.  So  economic 
truth,  facts  regarding  treatment  of  criminals,  of  pau- 
pers, all  principles  of  social  development,  can  be  taught. 
In  the  public  schools  even  might  incidentally  be  taught 
many  specific  facts  regarding  our  legal  rights  and  duties, 
elementary  principles  regarding  contracts,  torts,  election 
laws,  business  forms,  etc. 

To  a  great  extent^  too,  all  these  subjects  can  be  taught 
in  a  practical  way,  i.  e.,  so  that  pupils  may  getjmterest 


TRAINING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP.  26 

enough  in  the  ideal  to  begin  to  form  the  habit  of  action 
which  looks  toward  its  realization.  Even  social  ethics 
can  be  drilled  into  people.  In  one  of  the  most  promi- 
nent suburbs  of  Chicago  some  few  years  since,  I  knew 
well  a  large-hearted  superintendent  who  made  it  a  prac- 
tice from  time  to  time  as  occasion  arose,  to  tell  of 
cases  of  need  in  the  neighborhood,  and  to  ask  if  the 
children  would  contribute  a  little,  preferably  from 
their  own  earnings.  He  was  careful  to  teach  them  to 
distinguish  between  worthy  and  unworthy  cases,  and 
to  give  from  sympathy,  not  from  pity.  I  re^U  one 
accident  that  killed  the  father  of  a  family  and  left  the 
widow  and  six  small  children  in  a  mere  shanty  in  the 
dead  of  winter  with  little  clothing,  little  food,  and  little 
coal.  The  winds  from  Lake  Michigan  sweeping  up 
through  the  cracks  in  the  single  floor  in  zero  weather 
made  existence  difficult,  comfort  impossible.  A  brief 
story  to  the  school  one  morning  brought  enough  to  buy 
coal  and  food  and  needed  clothing.  The  next  morning 
the  superintendent  told  what  had  been  done,  and  asked 
if  a  little  more  money  could  be  raised  to  bank  the  house 
to  keep  out  the  freezing  winds.  The  true  spirit  of 
Charity  rang  out  in  the  excited  tones  of  one  of  the 
boys  as  he  shouted,  ''  Why,  Mr.  B.,  can't  we  kids  do 
that?  We  want  to  do  something."  The  boys  that 
banked  the  widow's  hut  in  Chicago  winter  weather  had 
learned  well  the  spirit  of  the  lesson.  A  charity  society 
in  that  school  with  an  investigating  committee  guided 
by  the  principal  might  well  serve  as  a  model  for  other 
schools  eager  for  educational  reform. 

Of  far  more  consequence  in  the  training  of  citizens, 


26  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS, 

however,  because  of  more  general  application,  and  be- 
cause character  and  habits  that  run  through  all  our  work 
are  of  more  consequence  than  mere  knowledge,  or  prac- 
tice in  philanthropy  or  in  business  or  social  life,  or 
even  than  the  highest  ideal  of  the  state,  is  the  culti- 
vation in  our  schools  of  the  spirit  of  impartiality,  which 
gives  sound  judgment,  and  a  feeling  of  personal  respon- 
sibility. 

This  strikes  at  the  root  of  all  educational  method,  for 
from  it  comes  a  habit  of  work  that  will  greatly  aid  in  the 
mastery  of  any  subject.  While  this  characteristic  is 
often  a  personal  gift,  it  can  still  to  a  great  extent  be 
cultivated — ^both  in  school  and  life.  The  natural  at- 
titude for  most  of  us  to  take  on  any  question  is  that  of 
the  advocate.  We  are  right.  Those  on  the  other  side 
are  wrong.  We  often  go  so  far  as  to  condemn  unheard 
people  who  are  as  sincere  as  we  are.  This  mental  at- 
titude engenders  strife,  prevents  compromise,  stifles 
truth  in  the  embryo.  The  true  attitude  of  a  man 
and  citizen  is  that  of  a  judge,  who  expects  in  cases  of 
dispute  to  find  some  truth  on  both  sides ;  who  is  willing 
to  see  the  good  and  the  evil  alike,  so  far  as  they  exist ; 
who  is  prepared  to  find  both  parties  sincere,  but  with 
different  points  of  view.  The  mere  effort  to  take  this 
mental  attitude,  the  mere  saying  to  one's  self  that  the 
person  on  the  other  side  is,  in  the  minds  of  others,  as 
likely  to  be  right  as  are  we,  will  be  enough  to  render 
our  opinion  worth  more  than  usual. 

To  be  impartial  we  must  first  do  some  thinking. 
Much  has  been  said  of  late  years  about  methods  of 
learning  by  rote  in  school  and  about  the  necessity  of 


TRAINING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP.  27 

teaching  children  to  think.  Only  lately  I  found  another 
of  the  standard  examples  of  the  failure  of  our  schools 
in  this  regard.  A  professorial  father,  disappointed  at 
his  son's  backwardness  in  school,  asks  him :  "  How  many 
cents  will  fifteen  apples  cost  at  twenty  cents  a  dozen  ?  " 
'^  Fifteen  times  twenty,"  is  the  reply,  and  when  the 
father  remonstrates,  the  son  replies :  "  Teacher  says, 
'  how  many  '  means  to  multiply."  I  heard  my  own  small 
boy  trying  to  find  out  the  difference  between  the  words 
^^  times  "  and  "  and,"  as  used  in  his  number  work,  say- 
ing that  "  times  "  meant  multiply,  while  "  and  "  meant 
add.  Evidently  the  number  work  was  only  words  to 
him. 

In  our  higher  schools  and  colleges,  there  is  often  a' 
tending  toward  extremes,  toward  favoring  the  position 
of  the  advocate  that  for  the  students  is  injurious  ever 
after  in  social  life.  In  one  of  our  great  western  uni- 
versities debating  societies  are  popular,  and  a  prize  de- 
bate the  great  intellectual  exhibition  of  the  year.  An 
instructor  in  political  economy  has  told  me  that  it  is 
exceedingly  difficult  to  get  the  students  in  that  university 
to  consider  impartially  any  controverted  question  which 
may  come  up  for  consideration  in  the  class-room.  All 
are  ready  to  advocate  one  side  and  close  their  minds 
to  reason  on  the  other.  This  would  seem  trivial  were 
it  not  that  our  politics,  our  schools,  our  religion,  our 
social  life  throughout  is  permeated  with  this  intolerant 
spirit.  We  are  all  proud  to  be  partisans  in  politics  or 
religion :  we  ought  to  weep  over  it ;  for  it  is  chiefly  this 
intolerance  that  keeps  us  from  adjusting  ourselves  read- 
ily to  the  changing  conditions  of  social  life,  as  well  as 


28  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

from  easily  changing  our  institutions  to  suit  the  needs 
of  our  people.  This  spirit  of  fairness  to  both  sides  can 
be  cultivated  in  our  schools  and  colleges. 

In  all  true  teaching  of  science  in  which  the  pupil  is 
led  to  observe  independently  and  to  draw  his  own  con- 
clusions, we  find  some  of  the  best  methods  for  inducing 
this  habit  of  mind.  But,  possibly,  because  in  our  lives 
as  citizens  most  of  our  judgments  must  be  moral  judg- 
ments, based  on  premises  as  variable  in  kind  as  is  human 
nature  and  social  customs,  we  shall  probably  find  more 
aid  in  history  and  literature.  We  must  teach  impar- 
tiality by  giving  practice  in  forming  judgments.  Most 
children  in  the  public  schools  are  taught  to  look  upon 
England  as  a  tyrannous  country.  Would  it  not  be  bet- 
ter to  ask  the  children  to  find  out  why  England  felt 
justified  in  trying  to  subdue  her  rebellious  colonies; 
and  to  let  them  see  that  the  question  was  not  entirely 
one-sided  ?  Again,  why  was  slavery  so  much  more  prev- 
alent in  the  South  than  in  the  I^orth  ?  Were  the  South- 
erners all  bad?  Was  Washington,  keeper  of  slaves, 
a  worse  man  than  Wendell  Phillips,  the  abolitionist? 
England  has  taught  us  much  that  is  helpful  and  useful 
regarding  the  civil  service  and  ballot  laws.  Can  our 
pupils  find  out  other  things  in  which  she  and  other 
countries  are  to  be  considered  more  advanced  than  is 
the  United  States?     We  need  not  fear  to  weaken  the 

1  sentiment  of  patriotism.  The  true  patriot  is  eager  to 
improve  his  country ;  only  the  demagogue  tries  to  flatter 
his  followers  into  senseless  content.  Our  history  is  so' 
full  of  glorious  success  that  our  citizens  need  no  special 


\ 


TRAINING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP,  29 

Incentive  to  pride  of  country.     They  need,  rather,  a  || 
keener  sense  of  responsibility. 

It  has  been  urged  at  times  that  work  which  deals  with 
politics  and  the  nature  of  the  state  is  too  advanced  for 
the  public  schools,  at  any  rate  for  the  lower  grades ;  that 
our  children  have  not  the  proper  apperceptive  material ; 
cannot  connect  such  work  with  anything  that  they  have 
previously  learned.  Such  an  opinion,  however,  comes 
from  a  mistaken  conception  of  the  nature  of  the  state  and 
of  government,  and  of  the  purposes  for  which  they  exist. 

We  are  all  too  accustomed  to  think  of  the  state  as 
something  remote  from  us.  If  we  speak  of  state  aid  for 
education  or  state  ownership  of  railways,  our  minds 
turn  at  once  to  the  capital  city  of  our  state,  or  to  Wash- 
ington, the  seats  of  active  government.  We  need  not 
merely  to  know,  but  to  feel,  to  make  real  and  habitual 
to  our  thinking  the  fact  that  we,  as  individuals,  are  part 
of  the  state ;  that  it  can  not  exist  without  us,  and  that 
no  one  of  us,  strong  or  weak,  young  or  old,  voter  or  non- 
voter,  fails  to  exert  influence  on  the  government  or  can 
put  off  responsibility  for  what  is  done  by  the  state.  Our 
influence  may  be  weakened  by  a  boss;  we  may  try  to 
avoid  responsibility  by  remaining  away  from  the  polls ; 
but,  not  only  our  congressmen  and  legislators,  but  every 
voter  who  aids  in  an  election;  every  woman  who 
strengthens  a  husband's  or  father's  arm,  not  merely  in 
voting,  but  in  business  or  social  life;  even  the  new- 
born babe,  whose  needs  stimulate  its  father  to  more  activ- 
ity in  labor,  love  for  which  makes  its  mother  kinder, 
more  charitable,  more  considerate  of  others,  are  powers 
in  the  state:  and  everyone  who  has  reached  years  of 


30  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

discretion  ought  to  be  made  to  realize  his  responsibility 
for  the  state. 

Our  human  natures  force  us  into  governmental  rela- 
tions, in  order  that  our  lives  may  be  richer  and  nobler 
than  they  could  be  were  we  to  live  in  isolation.  Com- 
plete life  is  possible  only  in  the  associated  state.  As 
parts  of  that  state,  with  that  purpose  of  striving  for  the 
^^  complete  life  "  before  us,  our  duties  not  merely  as 
Christians  or  as  men  and  women,  but  also  as  citizens,  re- 
quire us  to  care  for  the  welfare  of  our  fellows.  Even  in 
governmental  affairs,  the  personal  interests  of  citizens 
are  largely  local.  Woodrow  Wilson  has  called  attention 
to  the  fact  that  of  the  twelve  greatest  reform  measures 
of  all  kinds  passed  in  England  within  the  last  century, 
only  one  before  our  civil  war  and  only  two  since  the  war 
amendments  to  our  constitution  would  have  been  in  this 
country  matters  for  the  central  government.  The  others 
would  have  been  dealt  with  by  the  separate  states.  Even 
matters  more  strictly  local  still  are  of  great  importance 
to  the  individual.  During  our  last  presidential  cam- 
paign (1896)  farmers  were  greatly  concerned  about  the 
monetary  standard,  and  millions  of  dollars  were  ex- 
pended in  attempting  to  change  their  opinions  on  the 
question.  Yet  any  thoughtful  student  will  concede 
that  the  prosperity  of  the  average  well-to-do  farmer 
would  be  affected  more,  and  more  permanently,  by  a 
change  in  the  quality  of  the  road  between  his  farm  and 
the  nearest  good  market  town  from  that  of  the  average 
dirt  road  to  that  of  a  good  macadam  than  he  would  be 
by  any  proposed  change  in  the  monetary   standard. 


TRAINING  FOB  CITIZENSHIP.  31 

Beneficial  to  him  as  a  tariff  on  wool  might  be,  the 
chances  are  that  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  the  ten 
dollars  in  cash  and  two  days  in  time  spent  in  attending 
political  rallies,  if  expended  in  battening  the  cracks  in 
his  sheds  would  have  saved  him  more  money  in  lambs 
than  he  will  gain  in  the  increased  price  of  wool  from 
the  new  tariff.  Even  the  average  carpenter  and  mason 
has  much  more  real  personal  concern  in  the  election  of 
the  next  school  teacher  than  in  that  of  the  next  Presi- 
dent. As  a  student  of  political  science  keenly  interested 
in  all  matters  of  political  controversy,  I  am  gratified 
to  be  consulted  by  my  next  door  neighbor  regarding  the 
attitude  of  the  United  States  Supreme  Court  on  the  in- 
come tax ;  but  as  a  practical  business  man  with  a  small 
kitchen  garden,  my  real  financial  interest  and  my  per- 
sonal comfort  and  peace  of  mind  are  far  more  concerned 
in  his  views  regarding  hen  coops  and  the  moral  duties  of 
poultry  keepers.  I  do  not  wish  at  all  to  minimize  the 
duties  of  citizens  toward  our  central  government — ^most 
of  us  are  too  careless  in  that  regard — but  I  do  wish  to 
make  it  clear  that  we  do  not  draw  these  things  ordinarily 
with  the  right  perspective;  and  that  when  we  consider 
the  duties  of  citizens  from  the  right  standpoint,  we  shall 
observe  that  even  small  children  are  able  to  find  tasks 
suitable  for  citizens  and  to  understand  the  most  funda- 
mental of  all  political  duties — ^honesty  and  fair  dealing 
toward  one's  fellows.  As  in  our  later  methods  of  teach- 
ing geography,  we  begin  with  the  school  and  go  out 
thence  to  the  town,  the  state,  the  nation,  so  in  teaching 
political  duties,  take  first  those  to  our  schoolmates  and 
neighbors. 


32  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

The  essence  of  all  good  teaching,  however,  is  the  put- 
ting into  practice  in  life  of  the  principles  laid  down  in 
the  books  or  in  lectures,  or,  better  than  either,  brought 
out  by  the  children  themselves  through  skillful  ques-  ' 
tions.  It  may  well  be  worth  our  while  to  point  out  some 
at  least  of  the  civic  duties  that  children  can  perform. 
Many  of  them  are  often  performed  now  without  any  con- 
sciousness of  their  public  nature.  When  a  pupil  in  a 
district  school  I  trudged  off  with  a  comrade  a  quarter  of 
a  mile  to  bring  a  pail  of  drinking  water,  I  believe  that 
an  added  value  would  have  been  given  to  the  delight  of  -, 
the  outdoor  freedom,  if  I  had  been  made  to  realize  that 
I  was  doing  a  citizen's  duty,  working  for  the  public! 
If  our  children  knew  that  the  desks  which  they  so  care- 
lessly carve  and  the  buildings  which  they  so  wantonly 
deface  at  times  belong  not  to  an  indefinite,  abstract  en- 
tity, "  the  town,"  but  to  themselves,  their  parents,  their 
fellows,  and  that  an  injury  done  to  that  building  is  rob- 
bery of  their  friends,  they  would  be  more  careful.  If 
they  were  made  to  see  that  by  care  of  school  buildings 
and  furniture  they  could  aid  in  lowering  the  tax  rate ; 
that  by  order  in  school  and  a  spirit  of  helpfulness 
toward  their  teacher,  a  public  official,  they  were  perform- 
ing patriotic  duties,  their  school  would  take  on  an  added 
interest  and  appear  of  more  importance.  Is  it  hard  for 
a  child  twelve  years  of  age  to  understand  that  the  man 
who  swears  down  his  assessment  unduly  is  practically 
putting  his  hand  into  his  neighbors'  pockets  by  increas- 
ing their  taxes  unjustly  ?  Children  trained  to  see  what 
the  state  is  and  the  real  and  close  relation  existing  be- 
tween public  and  private  property  would  not  be  so  reck-     | 


TRAINING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP.  33 

less  in  later  years  in  squandering  public  funds  in  foolish 
appropriations  as  are  many  of  our  legislators  who  look 
upon  the  public  treasury  as  a  bottomless  well  from  which 
to  draw  good  gifts  for  their  constituents  and  especially 
for  their  near  friends  and  relatives. 

In  some  of  our  cities,  Boston,  Philadelphia,  New 
York,  ^^  the  youngsters  have  been  formed  into  a  Juvenile 
Street  Cleaning  Brigade."  The  members  are  pledged  to 
pick  up  stray  pieces  of  paper  and  deposit  them  in  re- 
ceptacles provided  by  the  city.  In  one  of  the  Chicago 
schools,  some  years  ago,  there  was  a  charitable  organiza- 
tion formed  among  the  pupils  under  the  direction  of  the 
principal  that  did  much  practical,  intelligent  work,  quite 
after  the  type  of  that  done  by  the  best  societies  of  adults. 
Such  practical  work  can  be  found  in  many  fields,  and  in 
no  other  way  can  the  children  be  so  directly  trained  as 
through  practice. 

The  most  direct  practical  work  in  politics  by  children 
that  I  have  seen  is  that  done  in  the  George  Junior  Re- 
public at  Freeville,  New  York,  where  the  young  people 
twelve  to  eighteen  years  of  age  make  their  own  laws; 
have  their  own  courts  and  police;  punish  their  own 
criminals  with  fines  and  imprisonment  that  are  not 
play  but  real  locking  up  in  real  cells,  real  hard  labor 
and  poor  food;  and  use  a  boy  and  girl  public  opinion 
that  is  even  more  powerful  than  that  in  adult  society 
because  it  is  franker  and  more  positive.  This  is  a  real 
share  in  government  that  can  rarely  be  given  in  schools. 

But  where  in  the  school  and  university  curriculum 
shall  this  training  be  given  ?  It  is  evident  from  what 
has  already  been  said  that  the  most  fundamental  things, 


84  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS, 

the  prime  essentials  in  training  for  citizenship — lofty 
ideals,  independence  and  impartiality  of  judgment,  re- 
gard for  the  rights  of  others — are  to  be  taught  always, 
in  every  class,  in  all  grades,  and  the  methods  are  sub- 
stantially the  same  from  kindergarten  to  university.  As* 
children  ought  to  live  in  an  atmosphere  of  good  English, 
good  temper,  good  morals,  so  ought  they  to  live  in  an 
atmosphere  of  tolerance,  independence,  impartiality  of 
judgment,  regard  for  the  rights  of  others,  thought  fulness 
regarding  one's  own  duties — and  the  teacher  must  create 
this  atmosphere.  The  turning  of  the  attention  to  public 
duties  can  be  begun  and  carried  on  informally  in  all 
classes,  as  has  been  suggested,  from  the  beginning;  but 
especially  in  studies  in  literature,  and  history,  and  geog- 
raphy will  the  relations  of  men  in  society  and  of  nations, 
one  with  another,  be  brought  out.  In  those  subjects 
specific  information  can  be  given — and  especially  in 
them  can  pupils  be  led  by  skillful  questioning  to  reason 
out  for  themselves  the  nature  of  the  fundamental  econo- 
mic and  political  relations  of  trade,  transportation, 
money,  labor,  of  taxes,  of  forms  of  government,  of  the 
ruler  and  the  ruled.  No  special  formal  training,  with 
separate  text-books,  need  be  given,  perhaps,  in  economics, 
or  even  in  civil  government,  until  the  college  is  reached, 
if  the  teachers  are  thoroughly  alive  to  the  opportunities 
for  such  training  in  kindred  subjects;  but  probably  in 
most  high  schools  such  subjects  should  be  formally  in- 
troduced. 

In  the  colleges  and  universities,  of  course,  should 
come  the  formal  studies  of  constitutional  and  admin- 
istrative law  and  politics,  native,  historical  and  com- 


TRAINING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP,  35 

parative,  with  history,  and  ethics,  and  philosophy. 
But,  I  pass  these  with  simply  the  mention,  because  that 
is  understood  by  all ;  and  primarily  because  even  in  the 
universities,  where  one  keeps  in  mind  the  purpose  of 
'  training  for  citizenship,'  of  molding  men  to  influence 
society  for  good  or  evil,  information  in  administrative 
law  and  comparative  politics,  even  for  most  graduate 
students,  is  of  less  importance  than  the  practice  of 
forming  impartial  judgments  on  present  political 
methods,  and  of  thus  learning  how  righteousness  must 
rule  if  the  state  is  to  live.  The  awakening  of  a  living 
interest  in  public  affairs,  the  arousing  of  a  determina- 
tion to  see  and  judge  political  life  fairly  and  impartially 
as  it  is,  the  kindling  of  a  resolve  in  the  student's  mind 
to  stand  for  the  best  and  noblest  measures  in  the  state, 
and  never  to  lose  sight  of  the  fundamental  purpose  of 
civilized  society,  to  enrich  and  ennoble  the  lives  of  the 
citizens,  nor  of  the  essential  condition  of  success,  bring- 
ing the  life  of  the  state  into  accord  with  the  principles 
of  justice  and  righteousness — ^these  are  still  in  the 
university  as  in  the  primary  school,  the  most  important 
tasks  of  the  teacher,  and  those  requiring  the  highest 
gifts.  It  must  not  be  forgotten,  too,  that  these  purposes 
should  be  in  the  mind  of  the  mathematician  and  the 
biologist,  as  well  as  in  that  of  the  historian  and  politician 
(I  use  the  word  in  its  proper  sense)  ;  for  while  the  latter 
may  have  opportunity  to  inculcate  the  lesson  more  fre- 
quently, the  occasion  comes  not  rarely  to  all,  and  the 
method  is,  after  all,  mainly  a  matter  of  a  living 
example,  so  far  as  the  spirit  is  concerned. 

So  far  as  one  deals  with  the  study  of  formal  prin- 


86  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

ciples,  of  course,  one  can  to  best  advantage  employ  the 
inductive  methods  for  which,  in  every  community,  an 
abundance  of  material  is  found. 

A  word  should  be  said  about  educational  means  out- 
side the  schools  and  colleges,  and  the  influence  of  such 
activity  upon  society.  While  we  must  expect  that  great 
social  reforms  which  involve  changes  in  the  dispositions 
or  habits  of  the  people  will  be  completed  only  with  com- 
ing generations,  still  one  ought  everywhere  to  keep  good 
influences  at  work.  Much  can  be  accomplished;  and 
some  of  those  improvements  that  involve  only  changes 
in  the  forms  of  institutions,  or  in  the  relations  of  indi- 
viduals can  often  be  carried  through  by  earnest  people  in 
a  short  time,  especially  if  the  plans  have  no  political  par- 
tisan aspect.  I  once  saw  an  important  law  put  through 
the  Ifew  York  legislature,  merely  as  the  result  of  a  few 
sentences  dropped  in  a  public  lecture.  The  idea  was 
fruitful,  was  non-partisan.  The  result  was  a  commission 
which  made  some  of  the  best  suggestions  regarding  legis- 
lative methods  ever  made  in  America,  suggestions  that 
there  is  reason  to  hope  will  bear  fruit  yet  in  the  state 
of  their  origin.  Often  a  university  extension  course,  or 
a  course  of  study  in  a  local  club,  or  school,  will  lead  to 
action  which  brings  great  good  to  the  whole  community. 
The  churches  ought  always  to  be,  and  often  are,  power- 
ful influences  toward  political  improvement,  especially 
when  they  keep  out  of  politics  and  devote  themselves  to 
cultivating  and  practicing  high  ideals.  And  it  must  not 
be  forgotten  that  a  social  reform  in  even  one  small  com- 
munity is  often  wide-reaching  in  its  effects.  Think  of 
Pestalozzi's  story  of  the  influence  of  the  wise  Gertrude, 


TRAINING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP,  37 

the  typical  model  citizen.  The  experiment  with  the 
liquor  traffic  in  Gothenburg,  Sweden,  has  revolutionized 
the  system  in  N'orway  and  Sweden,  has  set  reformers 
talking  the  world  over,  and  is  likely  to  result  in  untold 
benefit  to  many  peoples.  The  methods  of  work  outside 
the  school  are  the  same  as  those  within :  Give  knowledge, 
give  ideals,  give  impartiality,  and  independence,  and 
righteousness. 

To  sum  up  our  conclusions,  then,  good  citizenship  not 
only  can  be  promoted  by  educational  means,  but  a  chief 
essential  for  ultimate  success  in  social  reforms  is  that 
we  train  up  citizens ;  that  the  people  be  taught  to  under- 
stand better  the  nature  of  social  institutions ;  that  they 
realize  that  not  all,  but  a  large  part  of  our  social  evils 
come  not  from  wickedness  or  hard-heartedness  or  in- 
justice— though  all  these,  too,  bring  evils  in  their 
train — ^but  merely  from  a  mal-adjustment  of  social 
relations.  They  should  realize  also  that  these  evils  can 
be  overcome  at  times  by  merely  slight  changes  in 
methods  of  social  work  if  only  students  of  society  can  be 
found  to  suggest  wise  changes  in  methods.  But  most 
important  of  all,  is  the  education  of  the  people  to  that 
flexibility  of  temperament  and  culture  that  will  enable 
them  readily  to  adapt  themselves  to  new  conditions,  to 
that  impartiality  of  spirit,  that  judicial  habit  of  thought, 
that  feeling  of  personal  responsibility  which  will  aid 
them  to  see  truth  even  when  unwelcome,  and  to  that  zeal 
for  truth  and  righteousness  which  will  lead  them  to  be 
willing  to  do  their  duty,  and  will  thus  fit  them  to  adjust 
themselves  best  to  the  places  in  which  they  can  render  to 
society  the  greatest  service. 


n. 

THE  SOCIAL  BASIS  OF  EDUCATIOK* 

"  On  well-doing  for  the  common  good  I  bestow  my  pains.** 

— Pindar,  Pythian  Ode  xi. 

In  the  discussion  of  public  school  education  of  what- 
ever grade,  from  the  primary  school  to  the  university 
and  professional  schools,  it  is  especially  fitting  to  con- 
sider it  somewhat  carefully  from  the  social  and  political 
standpoints.  If  private  individuals  are  to  receive  their 
education  at  the  hands  of  the  state,  at  the  expense  of  the 
public,  the  public  should  receive  an  equivalent  service 
in  return.  It  is  also  very  desirable,  although  I  fear 
at  the  present  time  not  very  common,  that  the  individual 
recipient  of  this  education  should  recognize  his  obliga- 
tions to  the  state  therefor. 

It  has  been  customary  for  our  teachers  to  say  that 
the  primary  purpose  in  education  is  the  development 
of  the  individual,  self-realization,  the  training  of  one's 
natural  powers  to  their  fullest  extent;  and  there  is  no 
particular  objection  to  considering  this  as  the  purpose 
of  education,  provided  that  in  the  development  of  the 
individual  we  are  to  secure  also  the  development  of  the 
citizen.  We  are  to  fit  the  pupils  through  their  indi- 
vidual development  for  the  best  service  in  business  and 
social  life  and  in  politics. 

♦Address  before  the  Department  of  Education,  Cornell  Uni- 
versity.   Published  in  the  Educational  Review,  December,  1905. 

89 


40  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

From  the  social  and  political  points  of  view,  as  well 
as  from  the  highest  ethical  point  of  view,  we  may  say 
that  a  man's  value  is  measured  in  terms  of  service  to  his 
fellow  men.  Our  problem  as  educators,  then,  is  to  fit  our 
pupils  so  that  each  one  will,  on  the  whole  and  in  the  long 
run,  in  his  own  place  in  society  and  in  his  own  way,  by 
and  through  this  self-development,  render  to  his  fellow 
men  the  best  service  of  which  he  is  capable. 

It  must  not  be  overlooked,  however,  that  the  services 
of  individuals  and  of  the  state  are  reciprocal.  Not 
merely  is  the  individual  bound  to  use  his  powers  for  the 
good  of  his  fellow  men,  but  society  has  its  organization 
as  a  state  in  order  that  its  individual  members  may  re- 
ceive their  highest  development.  It  is  only  through  the 
best  equipped  individuals  that  we  can  have  the  greatest 
advance  in  society  and  the  most  perfect  state ;  but  it  is 
likewise  true,  on  the  other  hand,  that  only  in  the  best 
equipped  and  best  organized  state  are  we  likely  to  se- 
cure the  influences  which  will  produce  individuals  of 
the  highest  type. 

The  problem  of  the  social  side  of  education  must  be 
treated  from  two  points  of  view — that  of  society  in  the 
broad  sense  of  the  word,  and  that  of  the  state,  society 
organized  for  purposes  of  government. 

SOCIETY. 

We  shall  need  to  consider  somewhat  in  detail  the  real 
meaning,  the  fundamental  nature  of  society,  in  order  to 
see  its  relations  to  our  public  schools.  The  conception 
itself  is  a  very  complex  one,  or  perhaps  it  would  be  bet- 
ter to  say  that  the  word  ^^  society  "  embodies  a  number 


THE  SOCIAL  BASIS  OF  EDUCATION.  41 

of  different  conceptions  more  or  less  closely  allied  one 
to  the  other.  By  a  society  we  do  not  mean  merely  people 
together,  but  people  so  grouped  together  that  there  are 
certain  relations  existing  between  them  which  are  more 
or  less  permanent. 

The  various  kinds  of  societies  may  then  be  classified 
in  many  different  ways.  For  our  use  in  this  discussion, 
they  are  perhaps  most  easily  grouped  by  the  purposes 
for  which  they  are  organized.  The  church,  for  ex- 
ample, means  a  group  of  people  united  for  the  gratifi- 
cation of  their  religious  desires.  Not  a  number  of 
people  bowing  together  in  unison  would  constitute  a 
church,  unless  this  act  of  bowing  together  gives  mutual 
religious  aid.  There  must,  too,  be  some  form  of  organ- 
ization and  this  organization  must  contribute  toward 
the  satisfaction  of  religious  desire.  Generally  speak- 
ing, churches  are  completely  organized  with  rules  of 
admission,  rules  for  dismissal,  obligations  of  mutual 
aid  which  members  take  upon  themselves,  confessions 
of  belief  by  which  people  of  harmonious  desires  are 
brought  together,  and  other  methods  to  secure  the  pur- 
pose of  the  organization. 

The  school  is  an  excellent  example  of  a  society  with 
its  definite  organization  and  government  contributing 
directly  to  the  purpose  of  training  its  pupils.  The  school 
system  of  a  city  is  another  society  of  a  wider  range  for 
the  same  purpose,  as  is  also  a  university  or  a  polytechnic 
school.  There  are,  of  course,  debating  and  literary  so- 
cieties of  all  kinds  in  schools  and  colleges  and  in  the 
community  that  have  a  more  or  less  definite  organization 
which  determines  the  membership,  and  which  aids  in 


42  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

contributing  to  the  purpose  of  the  society  itself.  In  the 
same  way,  so-called  clubs  have  their  organizations,  their 
officers,  their  rules  for  admission  and  dismissal,  all  con- 
tributing toward  the  common  end. 

In  a  much  more  general  sense  we  speak  of  "  society  " 
in  the  fashionable  world,  or  the  community  of  general 
social  intercourse  in  any  locality  where  there  is,  to  be 
sure,  a  fashion,  but  where  fashion  is  local  and  the 
people  are  not  ordinarily  considered  ^^  fashionable.'^ 
Even  in  this  society,  altho  there  is  no  formal  organi- 
zation, there  is  an  informal  organization  which  is  well 
understood,  so  much  so  that  certain  individuals,  are 
regularly  spoken  of  as  "  leaders  "  in  each  society,  and 
their  will  largely  determines  what  that  society  shall  do. 
So  also,  largely  as  a  matter  of  custom,  certain  rules  of 
good  society  [t.  e,  practically,  laws]  come  to  be  quite 
generally  recognized.  Persons  are  admitted  into  each 
social  group ;  and,  if  a  person  sins  too  flagrantly  against 
the  generally  accepted  customs  of  "  society,"  he,  or  more 
likely  she,  will  find  herself  excluded  as  effectively  as 
one  dismissed  from  a  church  organization,  although 
no  formal  vote  will  be  taken  and  no  formal  procedure 
has  been  followed.  We  see,  nevertheless,  that  even  in 
this  meaning  of  the  word  "society,"  complex  as  it  is 
and  vague  as  it  is,  there  exist  the  elements  of  organ- 
ization and  purpose — that  of  common  activity  or  com- 
mon ajnusement  in  ordinary  affairs  of  life.  One  is  a 
member  of  this  society  ordinarily  without  any  will  of 
his  own,  without  any  formal  action,  even  being  un- 
conscious often  of  the  fact  that  there  is  any  organiza- 
tion; but  the  reality  of  such  a  society  and  its  influence 


THE  SOCIAL  BASIS  OF  EDUCATION.  43 

in  our  political  life  and  in  the  progress  of  the  world  can- 
not be  questioned. 

ECOISrOMIC   SOCIETY. 

Somewhat  more  definite,  altho  perhaps  no  less  com- 
plex^ and  possibly  quite  as  wide  in  its  influence  upon 
civilization,  is  economic  society.  By  economic  society 
we  mean,  of  course,  that  grouping  of  individuals  and 
organizations  of  all  types  by  which  we  carry  on  busi- 
ness so  as  to  satisfy  our  desires  for  goods  of  all  kinds, 
tangible  and  intangible.  Ordinarily  we  do  not  recog- 
nize how  extremely  complex  is  this  economic  society, 
and  how  interrelated  in  this  society  are  most  of 
the  actions  of  all  its  individual  members.  At  your 
breakfast  table  this  morning  perhaps  you  had  a  cup 
of  coffee.  To  give  you  that  cup  of  coffee  were  required 
the  services  of  your  cook  and  the  grocer ;  but  the  coffee 
was  perhaps  grown  in  Brazil  or  in  far-off  Java,  and  in 
order  that  you  might  have  coffee  suited  to  your  taste, 
skilled  experts  along  that  line  had  probably  blended 
different  kinds  from  different  quarters  of  the  globe.  To 
bring  it  to  your  table  had  required  the  complex  organi- 
zation of  the  railways  and  the  services  of  sailors  on 
probably  more  than  one  steamship  line,  the  planters  and 
their  servants,  the  importing  and  exporting  merchants 
with  the  bankers  who  negotiated  the  money  exchanges, 
and  the  law  makers  of  different  states  that  formulated 
the  rules  under  which  all  these  lines  of  business  have 
been  carried  on.  And  even  this  omits  the  other  group, 
or  complex  of  various  groups,  that  must  be  added  to 
bring  you  sugar,  provided  you  take  sugar  in  your  coffee, 


44  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS,  I 

to  say  nothing  of  the  farmers  and  farmers'  organizations  I 
that  probably  contribute  their  share  also  if  cream  is  j 
added.  It  is  probably  no  exaggeration  whatever  to  say  \ 
that,  in  order  to  give  you  one  cup  of  coffee  suited  to  your  .; 
taste,  thousands  of  people  and  hundreds  of  thousands  of  1 
dollars  had  to  work  together  in  harmony  performing  j 
this  service  for  you.  Generally  speaking,  also,  each  one  i 
of  those  employed  in  this  gTeat  complexity  of  services  \ 
has  received  his  pay  in  proportion  to  the  value  of  ! 
service  that  he  has  rendered,  altho,  to  be  sure,  there  ; 
may  have  been  cases  of  unjust  oppression  which  \ 
have  prevented  due  compensation  being  rendered  for  ; 
some  service;  and  if  you  in  turn  have  done  your  share  ' 
in  paying  your  bills  for  your  coffee  and  sugar  and  , 
cream,  you  have  rendered  full  compensation  in  due  pro-  < 
portion  to  each  one  of  these  thousands  that  have  worked  i 
for  you.  You  have  worked  for  each  of  them.  Every-  , 
where  in  our  home  lives  we  meet  with  like  examples,  • 
illustrating  the  great  complexity  of  our  economic  organi-  j 
zation  and  the  interrelation  which  exists  and  must  ex-  : 
ist  among  all  individuals  if  society  of  anything  but  I 
the  lowest  type  is  to  be  developed.  | 

SOCIAL   RESPONSIBILITY.  ' 

The  subject,  too,  may  well  be  considered  from  the 
moral  point  of  view.  When  John  Wesley  once  saw  ] 
staggering  along  the  road  a  drunken  vagrant  on  his  [ 
way  from  the  ditch  to  the  jail,  he  exclaimed :  "  But  for  ' 
the  grace  of  God,  there  goes  John  Wesley !  "  In  these  \ 
days,  in  our  common  terminology,  we  are  more  likely  to  ] 
say  "  environment,"  or  to  intimate  some  special  personal  i 


THE  SOCIAL  BASIS  OF  EDUCATION,  45 

influence  than  to  say  '^  grace  of  God ;  "  but  in  either 
case,  we  recognize  that  some  power  outside  of  the  in- 
dividual has  great  influence  in  molding  his  character 
and  determining  his  course  in  life.  If  in  a  fit  of 
drunken  rage  a  father  kills  his  child,  who  is  responsible  ? 
Himself  primarily,  of  course ;  he  ought  to  have  known 
better  than  to  get  drunk.  But,  perhaps,  was  not  his 
father  responsible  also  in  part  for  not  having  properly 
trained  him  in  his  youth  ?  Did  not  possibly  his  teacher 
at  school  fail  in  his  duty  to  give  him  proper  discipline 
and  higher  ideals?  Were  not,  perchance,  his  fellow 
pupils  responsible  in  part  for  their  mistreatment  of  him 
for  minor  faults,  or  possibly  merely  for  minor  personal 
qualities  for  which  he  was  in  no  way  to  blame,  but  which 
drove  him  out  of  the  uplifting  influence  of  their  com- 
panionship ?  Possibly  many  of  the  better  citizens 
should,  also  in  part,  be  held  responsible  from  the  fact 
that  they  have  neglected  to  make  right  laws  regulating 
the  sale  and  use  of  intoxicating  liquors.  Possibly  some 
of  us,  in  our  anxiety  to  look  after  our  own  welfare  by 
securing  laws  that  would  help  our  business,  have  put 
int€^  our  Legislatures  short-sighted  men  whose  time 
has  been  devoted  to  "  playing  politics  "  instead  of  caring 
for  the  good  of  society,  and  we  are  all  of  us  more  or 
less  responsible.  It  is  hard  to  escape  the  conclusion 
that  for  almost  every  crime  or  every  ill  of  whatever 
nature  under  which  society  suffers,  we  are  all  of  us,  we 
and  our  ancestors,  responsible,  each  to  a  greater  or 
less  degree  in  proportion  to  the  conscientiousness  and 
thoughtfulness  ^vith  which  we  have  tried  to  discharge 
our  duties  toward  our  fellows. 


46  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

It  must  be  kept  in  mind,  too,  in  any  such  discussion 
as  this,  that  probably  the  only  practical  criterion  of 
right  in  each  society  in  the  long  run,  so  far  as  any  de- 
termination of  social  action  is  concerned,  is  public 
opinion  as  to  what  constitutes  the  welfare  of  society. 
That  public  opinion  has  probably  been  greatly  shaped 
through  years  or  centuries  of  more  or  less  conscious  ob- 
servation of  the  effects  of  the  various  actions  that  are 
considered  good  or  bad  upon  the  social  group,  either 
as  a  whole,  or  as  made  up  of  its  individuals.  In  some 
of  the  most  highly  civilized  and  religious  societies  of  the 
ancient  days,  polygamy  was  recognized  as  right,  and 
doubtless  in  certain  stages  of  society  the  marriage  cus- 
tom of  monogamy  would  have  resulted  in  the  extinction 
of  the  society.  In  the  primitive  days  slavery  was  a  good 
as  compared  with  the  end  that  otherwise  would  have 
befallen  a  captive  in  war.  Some  people  might  go  even 
farther  and  agree  with  Aristotle  that  slavery  in  the  mild 
form  in  which  it  was  practiced  among  the  ancient 
Greeks  of  his  day  was  a  good  for  society,  when  the 
slaves  were  the  ^^  natural  "  slaves,  that  is,  the  people 
who  did  not  have  the  intelligence  and  directing  power 
which  would  make  them  capable  of  such  service  to  the 
state  as  they  might  render  when  held  under  the  tutelage 
of  their  superiors. 

Society,  and  the  best  society,  is  not  merely  the  end 
toward  which  the  attention  of  our  children  should  be 
directed;  but  we  must  recognize  also  that  our  present 
society  must  be  the  determining  force  in  directing  what 
means  shall  be  employed  to  improve  our  conditions  of 
life.     It  thus  behooves  educational  thinkers  to  place 


THE  SOCIAL  BASIS  OF  EDUCATION.  47 

before  the  public,  so  as  to  shape  public  opinion  in  the 
right  way,  the  means  by  which  our  higher  social  ideals 
may  best  be  carried  out  through  our  public  schools. 

l-""^       THE  STATE. 

Of  far  greater  significance  for  progress  than  any 
other  form  of  society  is  the  political  society  which  we 
call  the  state.  By  the  state  we  mean  society  organized 
for  purposes  of  governing,  with  the  understanding  that 
this  organized  society  will  employ  force  upon  its  individ- 
ual members,  if  need  be,  in  order  to  carry  out  its  wishes. 

By  government  we  mean  the  group  of  men  who,  acting 
together,  constitute  the  organ  by  which  the  will  of 
the  state  is  formulated  into  definite  rules  or  laws  and 
carried  out  in  practice. 

There  are  many  ways  in  which  the  state  differs  from 
other  societies,  such  as  the  church,  or  universities,  or 
literary  societies,  or  even  economic  society.  In  the 
first  place,  it  is  supreme  in  power  within  its  own  recog- 
nized territory.  Other  societies  are  subordinate.  While 
they  have  their  rules  and  enforce  them,  the  authority 
by  which  they  enforce  them  must  come  from  the  state. 

Second,  its  power  is  inclusive,  extending  over  all 
persons  within  the  territory,  and  determining  to  a  very 
great  extent  the  lives  of  all.  The  social  status  to  a  con- 
siderable degree  and  even  the  legal  rights  of  the  unborn 
babe  are  determined  by  the  state.  The  state  makes 
provisions  for  the  proper  care  and  nurture  and  training 
of  children  until  they  become  able  to  direct  their  own 
affairs.  The  conditions  under  which  people  may  make 
marriage  contracts  and  enter  into  the  marital  relations. 


48  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

as  well  as  the  obligations  resting  upon  husband  and  | 

wife,  are  fixed  by  the  state.    It  also  determines  the  rules  j 

and  regulations  by  which  men  must  earn  their  living  i 

in  civilized  society;  it  often  controls  to  a  considerable  \ 

extent  their  food  and  dwellings,  even  their  clothing,  \ 

and  their  amusements;   it  imposes  upon  them  many  i 

duties  toward  their  fellow  men,  and  rigidly  prescribes  - 

their  duties  in  support  of  the  state  itself  even  to  the  ; 

extent  of  calling  upon  them  to  sacrifice  their  lives,  if  i 

need  be,  in  its  interest.    In  many  cases  it  makes  special  1 

provision  for  the  care  and  relief  from  duties  of  the  \ 

aged  and  infirm,  while  leaving  to  them  as  far  as  pos-  i 

sible,  the  rights  and  privileges  accorded  to  all  persons  \ 

of  normal  intellect.     Even  the  conditions  of  death  are  i 

largely  controlled  by  the  state.    Questions  of  sanitation,  j 

questions  of  the  treatment  of  epidemics,  the  regulation  \ 

of  modes  of  burial  or  cremation  are  rigidly  controlled,  i 

so  that  it  is  scarcely  too  much  to  say  that  no  person  liv-  j 

ing  within  the  state  is  ever  free  from  its  domination,  or  ] 

ever  lacks  its  protecting  care.  ! 

In  what  ways  the  state  shall  exercise  this  control,  in  ' 

what  ways  it  shall  administer  this  care,  how  great  its  : 

activity  shall  be,  or  how  small,  is  a  matter  which  only  ] 

the  state  itself  can  determine.    The  individual  members  j 

of  the  state,  as  such,  have  no  power  of  direction.     The  | 

judgment  of  the  community  organized  for  government,  ^ 

the  state,  is  the  one  controlling  power.  '; 

THE    STATE    EEFLECTS    THE    CITIZENS.  \ 

But  while  we  speak  of  the  state  in  these  general  terms,  \ 

it  is  not  an  abstraction.     The  state  is  made  up  of  the  i 


THE  SOCIAL  BASIS  OF  EDUCATION.  49 

persons  in  the  community, — the  weak  and  the  strong, 
the  indolent  and  the  active.  We  ourselves  compose  the 
state;  and  in  our  organized  capacity,  acting  together, 
we  select  our  own  agents  of  government  and  determine 
under  whatever  form  our  government  may  take,  what 
they  shall  do. 

The  state  also,  far  from  being  a  mere  abstract  entity 
without  feeling,  is  distinctly  human  in  its  activity,  and 
in  many  cases  is  subject  even  to  the  whims  and  passions 
of  individual  humanity ;  for  the  government,  altho  the 
agent  of  the  combined  wills  of  the  individual  mem- 
bers of  the  state,  is  nevertheless  itself  composed  of  a  few 
men  who  act,  naturally,  subject  to  a  considerable  extent 
to  their  own  passions  and  weaknesses,  inasmuch  as  they 
are  given  usually  a  large  amount  of  discretion.  The 
state,  in  consequence,  if  under  a  despotic  form  of  gov- 
ernment, may  be  great,  powerful,  decisive  in  its  actions, 
if  its  ruling  monarch  is  a  man  of  will  and  decision ;  or 
it  may  be  timid  and  vacillating,  if  its  monarch  is  a 
weakling.  Even  in  a  republic  where  the  rulers  are  di- 
rectly chosen  by  the  people  and  where  the  government  is 
made  up  of  numerous  individuals,  it  frequently  happens 
that  a  man  in  an  important  position  is  of  so  positive  a 
nature  that  the  state  at  once  assumes  a  new  attitude  to- 
ward all  important  questions;  or,  again,  the  counsels 
of  a  number  of  weak  officials  may  be  so  halting  and 
vacillating  that  the  state  itself  takes  on  that  tone. 

What  we  as  individuals  think  of  the  state  as  a  rule 
depends  upon  our  own  circumstances  in  the  state  and 
upon  how  we  feel  that  we  are  treated  by  the  officials. 
If  we  are  poor,  unfortunate,  and  lacking  in  self-reliance, 


50  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS, 

particularly  if  we  feel  that  the  under  officials  with  whom 
we  perhaps  may  come  most  often  in  contact,  and  who 
therefore  represent  for  us  the  state,  are  arbitrary  and 
cruel,  we  shall  look  upon  the  state  with  aversion  and 
fear.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  those  officials  with  whom 
our  relations  are  most  intimate  are  wise  and  temperate, 
and  if  we  feel  that  the  state  thru  its  schools  or  post- 
office  or  other  department  nearest  our  activities  is  aiding 
us  in  every  way  possible,  we  shall  look  upon  the  state 
as  a  beneficent  institution  to  which  we  owe  our  all. 

So,  also,  the  activities  of  the  state,  in  the  long  run, 
and  the  effects  which  it  produces  upon  the  population 
are  really  determined  by  what  we  ourselves  as  citizens, 
acting  in  our  corporate  capacity,  desire.  We  may  make 
the  state  control  many  activities,  or  we  may  limit  its 
powers  most  rigidly.  We  may  give  to  ourselves  rulers 
wise  and  benevolent,  provided  we  ourselves  have  the 
wisdom  to  select  such  rulers,  or  we  may  permit  the  state 
to  drift  into  the  hands  of  the  active  corrupt  who  will 
control  us  and  our  means  for  their  own  selfish  interests 
and  against  the  welfare  of  the  public. 

It  is  of  vital  importance  that  we  ourselves  realize  ex- 
actly what  our  relations  to  the  state  are,  and  that  we  see 
to  it  that  the  pupils  in  our  schools  realize  the  nature  of 
society  and  of  the  state>^(that  organization  of  society 
which  positively  directs  and  controls  the  actions  of  so- 
ciety in  governmental  matters),  provided  we  wish  to 
have  our  schools  train  not  merely  self-centered  indi- 
viduals, but  citizens  whose  action  will  be  wise,  practical, 
unselfish,  and  directed  toward  the  common  good. 

In  our  school  organization,  and  in  our  teaching,  there- 


THE  SOCIAL  BASIS  OF  EDUCATION.  51 

fore,  we  must  keep  continually  in  mind  the  interrela- 
tions of  different  individuals  each  to  the  other.  We 
must  impress  upon  our  pupils  the  thought  that  the  test 
of  value  for  the  individual  is  the  service  which  he  can 
render  to  his  fellow  men.  We  must  see  that  direct  action 
in  society  is  largely  dependent  upon  the  state  and  com- 
pulsory force,  and  that  as  educators  we  are  to  fit  our 
pupils  for  service  to  the  public  by  making  them  individ- 
uals of  the  highest  type,  and  by  showing  them  how  they 
can  use  their  power  of  control  thro  the  state  in  the 
wisest  and  most  beneficent  way. 

INDIVIDUAL  TRAITS  AFFECTING  SOCIETY. 

Before  taking  up  specifically  the  subjects  of  the  school 
curriculum  with  reference  to  their  service  in  producing 
the  best  results  in  the  direction  of  social  betterment,  it 
is  important  to  consider  briefly  one  or  two  of  the  most 
striking  mental  traits  usually  found  among  our  citizens 
which  are,  on  the  whole,  antisocial  in  their  nature,  in 
order  that  we  may  see  best  the  difiiculties  to  overcome. 
It  will  not  be  possible,  of  course,  to  analyze  all  such 
traits;  we  must  rather  call  attention  to  only  two  or 
three  of  the  more  important  ones. 

I  am  rather  inclined  to  the  opinion  that  the  two  most 
important  mental  and  moral  characteristics  which  are 
responsible  for  our  social  evils  are  laziness  (perhaps  one 
should  rather  say  mental  and  moral  inertia),  and  selfish- 
ness. 

MENTAL  AND  MOEAL  INERTIA. 

Practically  all  progress  in  society  comes  from  the 
fact  that  a  certain  individual  has  been  able  to  overcome 


52  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS, 

his  mental  inertia,  and  instead  of  drifting  with  the 
multitude  or  moving  in  the  lines  of  least  resistance 
among  the  customs  and  habits  of  his  ancestors  and 
neighbors,  has  thought  out  some  new  and  better  mode 
of  action,  and  has  pushed  forward  in  that  way.  Unless 
we  stop  to  consider  carefully  our  habits  of  life,  we  do 
not  realize  how  absolutely  in  most  cases  we  are  domi- 
nated by  custom.  The  fashions  of  the  clothes  we  wear^ 
the  nature  of  the  food  that  we  eat,  the  ways  in  which 
we  entertain  others  and  are  ourselves  entertained, 
the  ways  in  which  our  work  is  done,  what  we  shall 
think  on  questions  of  politics,  or,  in  other  words,  the 
choice  of  the  political  parties  to  which  we  belong,  what 
we  shall  think  on  religious  matters,  or  the  churches 
which  we  shall  join — everything,  practically,  for  nine 
out  of  ten  of  us  is  determined  by  the  way  in  which  our 
parents  have  thought  and  lived,  by  the  way  in  which  our 
associates  live  and  act.  Careful  students  of  politics  are 
of  the  opinion  that  only  a  very  small  number,  probably 
not  ten  per  cent,  of  the  voters  in  any  election,  think  out, 
— or  even  think  of  trying  to  think  out — the  issues  of 
the  day  and  vote  conscientiously  upon  them.  It  is  so 
much  easier  to  let  their  thinking  be  done  by  those  who 
are  framing  the  party  platforms  and  giving  the  names 
to  the  parties'  creeds.  It  is  easy  to  be  a  Methodist  if 
your  parents  and  friends  are  Methodists;  it  is  easy  to 
be  a  Roman  Catholic  if,  as  a  child,  you,  have  been 
brought  up  in  that  church ;  but  it  is  hard,  very  hard,  to 
think  thru  the  question  of  one's  religious  and  moral 
obligations  and  to  make  up  one's  mind  independently, 
especially  if  such  action  would  be  likely  to  bring  one  into 
conflict  with  his  relatives  and  friends. 


THE  SOCIAL  BASIS  OF  EDUCATION.  53 

Likewise  in  the  industrial  world.  As  has  been  often 
suggested,  a  large  part  of  the  suffering  in  the  community 
comes  simply  from  the  maladjustment  of  economic  re- 
lations. New  inventions  bring  about  new  processes  of 
manufacture  and  throw  out  of  employment  large  num- 
bers of  men  who,  on  account  of  their  mental  inerta  and 
their  lack  of  suitable  knowledge,  find  it  difficult,  often 
impossible,  to  change  into  a  new  field  of  work.  It  is 
probably  no  exaggeration  to  say  that  boss  rule  in  politics, 
the  power  of  the  fanatic  in  religion,  the  control  at  times 
of  great  organizations  of  laboring  men  by  a  hot-headed 
leader,  as  well  as  the  failure  of  our  courts  to  adapt  their 
decisions  to  meet  new  conditions  and  the  slowness 
with  which  our  legislators  remove  old  abuses  are  all 
due  to  this  mental  and  moral  inertia  which  makes  it 
easier,  on  the  one  hand,  to  follow  a  positive  leader  upon 
whom  we  have  been  accustomed  to  rely  than  to  oppose 
him  or  to  think  out  new  ways  of  action  for  ourselves, 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  to  drift  along  in  our  old  ways 
of  thinking  and  doing  rather  than  to  work  out  new 
rules  for  action  which  new  conditions  may  demand. 

Besides  being  thus  a  negative  force,  if  the  expression 
be  permitted,  that  may  be  used  by  unscrupulous  leaders 
of  positive  character  to  the  detriment  of  society,  it  will 
be  seen  also,  nevertheless,  that  this  mental  inertia  (and 
it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  it  is  moral  inertia  also) 
in  many  cases  is  a  conservative  element  in  society  which 
often  prevents  action  that,  considering  the  ignorance 
and  prejudice  of  the  multitude,  would  be  too  hasty,  and 
in  consequence,  unwise.  If  our  population  had  a  higher 
level  of  intelligence  and  greater  willingness  to  meet 


f  O*-   THF      ^    \ 


54:  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

new  conditions  by  changes  in  habits  and  more  ready 
adaptability  in  all  the  relations  of  life,  social  reforms 
could  be  produced  much  more  readily  and  with  much 
less  danger  of  failure.  Perhaps  our  schools  can  render 
no  greater  service  than  to  give  to  our  children,  as  far 
as  possible,  habits  of  thinking  for  themselves  independ- 
ently, of  working  out  new  plans  which  still  shall  be 
reasonable,  and  the  willingness  to  change  from  one  habit 
to  another  when  the  advisability  of  such  change  seems 
clear.  In  too  many  cases  now  people  are  unwilling  to 
consider  even  the  advisability  of  a  change.  Our  legis- 
lators are  always  anxious  to  take  only  very  short  steps 
in  advance,  because  they  say  the  people  will  not  stand 
for  anything  radical  and  they  must  have  the  people's 
support  and  co-operation  if  a  law  is  to  succeed. 

It  must  also  not  be  forgotten  that  one  reason  why  so 
little  has  been  done  to  encourage  independent  habits  and 
personal  initiative  in  our  schools  is  because  our  teachers 
and  school  officials  have  themselves  been  dominated  by 
custom  until  they  have  become  old-fogyish  and  unpro- 
gressive.  They,  as  well  as  others,  need  to  realize  that 
it  takes  public  spirit,  care  for  the  welfare  of  others,  as 
well  as  private  good  sense,  to  secure  the  energy  to  move 
in  a  new  direction.  And  above  all  there  is  needed  the 
impartial  judgment  which  will  enable  one  to  see 
whether  the  change  proposed  is  wise  or  foolish. 

SELFISHNESS  A  SOCIAL  EVIL. 

The  second  great  social  evil  referred  to,  selfishness, 
has  the  effect  of  building  up  in  the  community  classes 
hostile  each  to  the  other,  and  of  limiting  very  greatly 


THE  SOCIAL  BASIS  OF  EDUCATION.  65 

one's  own  usefulness.  This  dominating  trait  is,  of 
course,  the  fundamental  force  back  of  all  vices  and 
crimes  of  self-indulgence- — greed,  vanity,  envy  and  pas- 
sion of  all  kinds.  In  all  these  the  sinner  seeks  to  gratify 
personal  desires,  even  at  the  expense  of  others  and  of  the 
public.  Licentiousness,  theft,  forgery,  political  corrup- 
tion, fighting,  arson,  murder — all  spring  from  this  com- 
mon source.  The  only  remedy — except  personal  affec- 
tion or  religion — if  a  person  is  strongly  inclined  toward 
wrong  in  this  way,  is  a  self-control  brought  about  by  a 
clear-headed  perception  of  the  ultimate  effects  of  such 
indulgence. 

It  is  easy  to  point  out  in  our  schools  that  the  really 
great  are  those  that,  conquering  their  own  selfish  inclina- 
tions, render  the  great  services  to  society.  In  the  study 
of  the  lives  of  great  men,  in  the  consideration  of  public 
questions  and  of  the  forces  lying  back  of  great  historical 
movements  that  have  uplifted  humanity  we  see  that 
service  to  others  is  a  power  that  pays  the  doer  of  the 
service.  In  this  way  we  may  eventually  teach  our  chil- 
dren to  see  themselves  somewhat  with  others'  eyes, 
objectively,  impartially,  as  others  see  them,  and  to  real- 
ize that  in  the  long  run  and  in  the  higher  sense,  our 
real  interests  are  at  one  with  those  of  society.  Selfish- 
ness is  usually  a  very  short-sighted  self-interest;  altru- 
ism, a  wise,  far-seeing  self-interest.  There  was  never 
a  truer  piece  of  social  philosophy  than  "  He  that  find- 
eth  his  life  shall  lose  it,  and  he  that  loseth  his  life  for 
My  sake  shall  find  it."  The  teacher  who  devotes  him- 
self most  unselfishly  to  the  welfare  of  his  pupils  and 
his  school  is  the  one  who  makes  the  greatest  success 


56  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS.  ; 

of  his  work  and  wins  for  himself  in  the  long  run  the  ! 

highest  standing.     It  is,  of  course,  often  true  that,  if  ' 

the  question  is  considered  from  the  purely  money  point  i 
of  view,  the  selfish  man,  even  the  criminal  one  may 
succeed;  but  from  the  broader  social  point  of  view,  if 
one  is  really  ambitious  to  gain  the  highest  success,  the 

truest  self-interest  is  found  in  the  widest  and  most  use-  ; 

ful  service.     Our  pupils  should  be  made  to  realize  that  /j 

their  interests  are  really  at  one  with  those  of  society.  | 

Except  that  it  changes  the  point  of  view  and  the 

method   of   thought,   this   doctrine   in   no   way   differs  i 

from  that  which,  with  emphasis  still  upon  moral  train-  \ 

ing,  urges  teachers  to  develop  to  the  fullest  extent  the  ; 

individuality  of  their  pupils.    In  the  one  case  the  pupil  \ 

is  taught  to  think  from  himself  and  his  own  capacities  i 

out ;  in  the  other  case,  he  thinks  of  the  welfare  of  society  \ 

without  reference  to  himself.  j 

1 

I 

THE    CURRICULUM    AND   METHODS    OF    TEACHING.  | 

We  have  next  to  note  how  the  social  point  of  view  in  ' 

the  discussion  of  educational  questions  will  affect  the  ! 
choice  of  our  curriculum  and  our  methods  of  teaching. 

We  wish  to  arouse  in  our  pupils  social  consciousness,  | 

the  feeling  that  they  are  a  part  of  one  great  whole,  and  j 

that  they  have  the  responsibility  resting  upon  them  to  ] 

play  well  their  role  in  this  great  life  drama.    What  sub-  j 

jects  in  our  common  school  curriculum  will  best  serve  ; 

these  purposes,   and  how  can  ^they  best  be  taught  in  ; 

order  to  attain  these  ends?     It  is  probable  that  the  1 

social  point  of  view  as  here  presented  and  the  individual-  : 

istic  point  of  view,  which  lays  emphasis  upon  the  de-  ' 


THE  SOCIAL  BASIS  OF  EDUCATION.  57 

velopment  of  the  individual  pupil,  will  not  reach  results 
materially  different  as  regards  subject  matter.  The 
main  differences  will  be  in  methods  of  work  and  in 
the  degrees  of  emphasis  laid  upon  different  studies. 

CLASSIFICATION   OF   STUDIES   AND   THEIR    SIGNIFICANCE. 

In  our  school  curriculum  certain  subjects  are  to  be 
looked  upon  as  tools  placed  in  the  pupil's  hands  to  en- 
able him  to  do  any  kind  of  work  effectively;  whereas 
others  are  especially  well  adapted  to  arouse  social  con- 
sciousness and  direct  attention  toward  public  service. 
Pupils  must  learn  to  read  and  write,  whatever  the  end 
may  be  toward  which  they  bend  their  energies.  Cer- 
tainly some  knowledge  of  mathematics  is  required  in 
almost  every  walk  in  life,  and  language  or  languages 
and  mathematics  and  logic  are  to  be  looked  upon  primar- 
ily as  tools  necessary  to  any  activity.  But  even  in  these 
studies  something  can  be  done  in  the  way  of  choice  of 
subject  and  method  of  treatment,  to  emphasize  the 
social  point  of  view.  Many  of  the  illustrative  examples 
in  our  arithmetics,  for  example,  have  little  or  no  bear- 
ing upon  our  everyday  life.  What  use  do  most  of  us 
make  of  the  apothecary's  table  or  of  the  binomial 
theorem,  or  of  the  extraction  of  the  cube  root,  or  of  the 
problems  of  the  differential  calculus?  And  yet  in  a 
study  of  history  the  pupil  will  get  a  much  more  vivid 
notion  of  the  social  conditions  of  the  American  colonies 
and  will  be  much  more  likely  to  have  his  patriotic  spirit 
aroused  by  the  tales  of  the  sacrifices  of  our  forefathers, 
if  he  compares  mathematically  the  numbers  of  the 
Revolutionary  population  and  of  the  soldiers  with  the 


58  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

peoples  and  armies  of  to-day  in  some  of  the  late  great 
world  struggles;  if  he  calculates  with  some  degree  of 
accuracy  the  cost  of  supplying  an  army's  needs  in  the 
days  of  Washington  with  the  costs  to-day ;  if  he  figures 
out  the  distances  required  for  the  transportation  of 
supplies  with  the  time  required  for  covering  the  needed 
distances;  if  he  compares  accurately  the  efficiency  of 
the  fire-arms  used  as  regards  range  and  accuracy  then 
and  now. 

Similar  uses  of  mathematics  in  industrial  life  will 
prove  no  less  significant.  Dr.  Charles  McMurry,  in 
one  of  his  classes  in  geography,  lately  secured  a  vivid 
realization  of  the  significance  of  the  great  water  power 
at  Niagara  Falls  by  having  the  class  visit  a  local  mill 
whose  machinery  was  driven  by  an  engine  of,  say,  fifty- 
horse  power,  having  the  students  note  the  amount  of 
work  done,  the  number  of  people  employed  with  the 
number  of  persons  dependent  upon  them,  the  amount 
paid  out  in  wages  and  similar  matters,  and  then  having 
them  by  means  of  a  careful  mathematical  comparison 
estimate  how  many  establishments,  how  many  workmen, 
how  much  in  wages,  and  so  on,  would  be  required  in 
order  to  utilize  in  a  similar  manner  the  hundred  thou- 
sand horse  power  developed  in  the  works  at  Niagara? 
We  may  readily  see  how  each  teacher  could,  in  similar 
ways,  in  classes  in  history  and  geography  and  literature, 
make  exercises  in  mathematics  contribute  to  a  much 
more  vivid  realization  of  the  social  significance  of 
events  and  phenomena  than  they  now  do,  and  how  much 
of  the  drudgery  of  the  subject  might  thus  be  taken  away, 
while  all  the  benefits  required  for  our  social  life  might 


THE  SOCIAL  BASIS  OF  EDUCATION.  59 

be  far  better  secured.  I  do  not  wish  to  ignore,  of  course, 
the  further  advantages  of  accuracy  and  promptness, 
that  come  from  the  study  of  mathematics,  nor  the  ad- 
vantages in  the  way  of  mental  drill  from  the  care- 
ful reasoning  required  in  geometry,  nor  the  special 
benefits  secured  by  such  a  study  in  the  way  of  requir- 
ing students  to  state  things  logically  and  accurately,  and 
of  giving  them  a  clear  conception  of  the  nature  of  proof 
— all  these  things  are  of  great  social  importance ;  but  a 
careful  adaptation  of  the  subject  to  others  in  the  curri- 
culum and  its  shaping  to  a  social  use,  will  give  it  also  a 
much  richer  content. 

In  the  study  of  hygiene  and  physical  training  the 
pupil,  by  thoughtful  suggestion  and  study  of  illustrative 
cases,  may  be  made  to  realize  that  a  long  and  healthy 
life  has  a  significance  to  society  as  well  as  to  the  com- 
fort of  the  individual  concerned.  Perhaps  most  of  us 
fail  to  realize  that  the  chief  period  of  productive  activ- 
ity for  society  is  found  after  one  has  advanced  well 
along  into  the  adult  years,  and  that  it  is  usually  the 
case,  provided  a  person's  health  remains  unbroken  and 
his  mental  powers  stay  tuned  up  to  their  full  activity, 
that  the  best  ten  years  of  any  man's  life,  from  the  point 
of  view  of  service  to  society,  are  his  last  ten  years.  And 
this  should  always  be  the  case.  Note  the  lives  of  Lin- 
coln, Washington,  Gladstone,  Csesar ;  study  more  closely 
those  of  the  most  influential  men  in  the  community, 
and  see  how  rapidly  influence  gains  with  the  passing 
years,  provided  only  that  health  and  activity  remain. 
Had  Gladstone  died  at  fifty,  Lincoln  ten  years  earlier 
than  he  did,  how  great  would  have  been  the  difference ! 


60  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS,  ' 

With  this  thought  in  mind  the  care  of  one's  health  and  i 

a  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  hygiene  acquire  a  new  \ 

significance.      This   thought,   too,   may   well  lead   our  i 

children  to  remain  longer  in  school  and  college.    If  their  j 

last  ten  years  are  to  be  much  more  serviceable  than,  say,  ' 

those  from  twenty  to  thirty,  or  thirty  to  forty,  it  will  ' 

be  because  they  have  especially  fitted  themselves  for  I 

service.     It  is  well  to  recall  the  fact  that  Aristotle —  i 

possibly  the  greatest  thinker  and  greatest  scientist  of  all  ; 

time — went  to  college  (in  Plato's  Academy)  for  twenty  i 

years ;  that  he  did  not  begin  writing  till  he  had  studied  i 

nearly  ten  years ;  that  he  hardly  worked  independently  \ 

till  past  forty,  and  that  his  most  important  productive  : 
work  was  done  after  he  was  past  fifty. 

The  very  beneficial  results  that  have  been  obtained  in  \ 

late  years  from  the  social  point  of  view  in  the  control  of  ^ 

epidemics,  the  fact  that  in  military  campaigns  the  losses  i 

from  disease  are  usually  much  greater  than  those  from  j 

bullet  wounds,  all  show  how  important  is  the  study  and  I 
how  great  its  social  significance. 

In  speaking  of  mathematics,  an  Intimation  has  been  i 

given  of  the  social  side  of  history.     The  subject,  of  ■ 

course,  is  valuable  from  the  point  of  view  of  mere  infor-  ■ 

mation  which  it  would  be  pleasant  for  the  individual  to  I 

have  in  his  social  intercourse.     A  good  knowledge  of  1 

historical  facts  enables  one  to  understand  many  allusions  ' 

in  a  way  that  may  be  useful.     Primarily,  however,  his-  ■ 

tory  should  be  studied  with  reference  to  social  causes  and  i 

results,  in  order  that  from  the  experience  of  the  past  we  ! 

may  learn  to  form  social  judgments  to  serve  us  in  the  : 

present.      The   powerful   influence   of   trustworthiness  I 


THE  SOCIAL  BASIS  OF  EDUCATION.  61 

in  character  and  soundness  of  judgment  is  seen  clearly 
in  the  success  of  Washington.  Brilliancy  of  intellect 
would  not  have  made  his  greatness.  The  Boston  Tea- 
party  was  in  itself  a  small  incident.  A  careful  study 
of  the  motives  of  the  men  engaged  in  it  and  of  their 
personality  is  full  of  suggestion  for  a  student  of  politics 
or  even  a  political  leader  of  to-day.  The  give  and  take 
of  the  debating  factions  in  the  Constitutional  Con- 
vention of  1787  with  the  influences  back  of  the  leaders 
from  the  various  states  are  reflected  to-day  in  every 
Congress  and  i^ational  Convention.  Owing  to  the  un- 
certain nature  of  the  premises  in  any  social  question 
where  our  reasoning  must  depend  to  a  considerable  ex- 
tent upon  our  knowledge  of  human  motives — motives 
which  are,  of  course,  as  variable  and  changing  as  are 
different  people  and  different  nations — ^we  need  much 
experience  in  studying  such  premises  and  in  making 
social  judgments.  The  study  of  history  gives  many  op- 
portunities for  gaining  such  experience. 

Of  vital  importance  also  is  the  judicial  temperament, 
which  endeavors  to  see  both  sides  of  every  controverted 
question.  This  habit  of  impartiality  is  in  part  a  matter 
of  natural  disposition,  still  more  perhaps  a  matter  of 
training.  In  possibly  no  other  study  of  the  school  curri- 
culum is  there  a  better  opportunity  of  compelling  stu- 
dents to  see  that  there  may  be  reason  on  both  sides  of  a 
question  and  that  it  is  never  safe  to  impute  bad  motives. 
Children  in  our  country  will  naturally  be  opposed  to 
slavery;  but  they  should  consider  why  Washington  and 
others  of  our  Revolutionary  heroes  were  slaveholders. 
It  is,  of  course,  natural  and  right  for  them  to  feel  that 


62  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS.  i 

our  forefathers  were  oppressed  and  that  the  American  j 

Revolution  was  justifiable;  but  they  should  be  led  to  see  I 

that  the  English  statesmen  in  attempting  to  conquer  the  ; 

colonies  were  likewise  conscientious,  and  to  see  the  rea-  ■ 

sons  which  led  to  their  actions.     So  also,  in  the  case  of  \ 

the   Southern   Confederacy,   they   should   realize   how  j 

natural  was  the  contention  of  the  southerners,  how  al-  \ 

■ 
most  unavoidable  their  line  of  argument  from  their  \ 

economic  conditions  and  their  social  training ;  and  at  the  \ 

same  time  they  should  see  how  clearly  the  events  have  ^ 

shown  the  probable  benefit  of  the  war,  even  to  the  south-  ] 

erners  themselves.     From  a  careful  teaching  of  history  j 

the  habit  of  forming  impartial  social  judgments  should  ; 

be  cultivated,  and  in  this  way  perhaps  the  pupils  can  be  i 

led  to  feel  their  social  responsibility  as  well  as  in  any  ] 

other  way.  ) 

The  study  of  geography  may  be  a  tool,  of  course,  for  j 

the  use  of  the  individual  in  enabling  him  to  plan  his  j 

railway  journeys,  to  find  the  locations  of  markets,  and  i 

so  on.     From  the  physiographical  point  of  view,  too,  it  ; 

may  have  interest  and  gratify  curiosity;  but  if  the  i 

earth's  surface  is  studied  with  continual  reference  to  its  "^ 

adaptability  to  meet  man's  needs,  the  study  becomes  not 

merely  a  tool  or  a  developer  of  mental  habits,  but  it  is 

of  prime  significance  in  tracing  social  and  economic  : 

causes  and  results.     Perhaps  no  study  has  a  more  di-  > 

rect  effect  in  arousing  social  consciousness  and  in  en-  ; 

abling  the  pupils  to  see  and  feel  the  interdependence  of  ' 

the  peoples  of  one  clime  upon  those  of  another  and  the  • 

necessary  interrelations  of  the  different  nations  of  the  i 

world.  i 


THE  SOCIAL  BASIS  OF  EDUCATION.  63 

I  have  already  spoken  of  the  number  of  people  who 
serve  ns  in  bringing  our  morning  cup  of  coffee ;  but  the 
study  of  any  industrial  process  or  social  activity,  as 
exemplified  in  good  geography  teaching  or  in  carefully 
planned  manual  training,  has  always  a  logical  drift 
in  the  same  direction.  The  study  of  th^  various  pro- 
cesses by  which  from  mine  and  forest  the  raw  materials 
become  a  desk;  the  analysis  of  the  use  of  the  water 
power  at  Niagara  Falls  to  drive  street  railways  and  fac- 
tories and  canal  boats;  the  reasons  why  the  relative 
localities  of  Port  Arthur,  Vladivostock,  and  the  Straits 
which  give  entrance  to  the  Sea  of  Japan  both  gave  rise 
to  and  ended  the  Russo-Japanese  War — all  tell  the  same 
story,  that  no  man  and  no  nation  can  live  alone. 

Literature  in  the  same  way  is  a  useful  tool  for  the 
individual  in  enabling  him  to  secure  social  pleasure  and 
profit  for  himself  and  others.  Perhaps  no  other  study 
of  the  school  curriculum  may  be  used  more  effectively 
to  increase  the  powers  of  enjoyment  of  the  individual 
by  giving  him  literary  taste  and  the  means  of  gratify- 
ing it;  but  of  still  greater  significance  is  the  fact  that 
from  literature  we  may  learn  perhaps  better  than  from 
any  other  study  how  best  to  understand  human  mo-  ^ 
tives  and  the  way  in  which  they  work  in  society,  what 
is  the  nature  of  our  social  duties  and  how  best  to  per- 
form them  in  order  to  accomplish  the  best  results.  For 
literature  is  a  picture  in  some  form  of  society  itself; 
and  in  many  cases  this  picture  is  more  vivid  and  more 
accurate  as  an  analysis  of  society  than  the  accounts 
which  we  can  get  from  history,  as  history  must  be  pre- 
pared for  use  in  our  common  schools. 


64  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

One  might  in  this  way  go  through  all  of  the  studies 
of  the  school  curriculum,  showing  how  each  has  its  use 
as  a  tool  and  how  it  can  be  made  to  contribute,  through 
its  economic  and  aesthetic  qualities,  to  the  study  of  so- 
ciety;  and  how  every  subject  has  these  two  sides,  so  that 
it  lies  within  the  power  of  the  teacher  to  make  it  con- 
tribute toward  the  purpose  which  we  have  kept  in 
view. 

The  same  results  can  in  many  cases  be  secured  by 
special  exercises.  In  some  of  our  best  schools  the  chil- 
dren have  been  formed  into  street  cleaning  brigades 
whose  work  in  picking  up  papers  scattered  about  the 
streets  and  in  doing  similar  tasks  has  led  them  to  ap- 
preciate the  nature  of  the  problems  of  a  great  city ;  also 
from  time  to  time  in  some  instances  cases  of  suffering 
in  the  community  have  been  called  to  their  attention, 
and  they  have  been  led  to  learn  wise  methods  of  char- 
itable relief  for  the  unfortunate.  The  school  organiza- 
tion has  been  used  as  a  means  of  teaching  local  govern- 
ment. The  study  of  the  support  of  the  school  has  served 
to  begin  the  study  of  taxation,  its  methods,  its  defects, 
its  benefits. 

In  the  higher  schools,  of  course,  the  studies  of  civil 
government  and  political  economy  may  be  especially 
used  for  these  purposes,  provided  they  are  skilfully 
taught. 

Much  more  than  is  often  thought,  the  study  of  the 
business  life  about  us,  whether  in  connection  with 
manual  training  or  geography  or  history  or  literature, 
or  whether  made  a  special  exercise,  is  one  of  the  best 
fields  for  moral  training  and  the  inculcation  of  high 


THE  SOCIAL  BASIS  OF  EDUCATION.  65 

ideals  of  life.  The  ablest  and  most  successful  mer- 
chant in  one  of  the  best  of  the  small  cities  of  New  York 
lately  told  a  friend  of  mine  how  well  it  paid  to  practice 
honest  and  open  dealing.  "  A  reputation  for  fair  buy- 
ing and  selling  is  worth  more  to  the  business  man  than 
a  stock  of  goods.  The  merchant  who  by  sharp  practice 
gets  the  name  of  trickster  cannot  have  lasting  success," 
he  said;  and  his  own  life  habit  in  business,  with  his 
success,  proved  him  sincere  and  sound  in  judgment. 
It  is  well  for  people  to  see  that  honesty  pays,  even  if 
that  motive  is  not  the  highest.  An  excellent  brand  of 
any  goods  always  sustained  in  quality  brings  properly 
a  higher  price  than  goods  equally  valuable  intrinsically, 
but  not  known.  Certainty  in  quality  is  worth  paying 
for.  This  effort  to  sustain  quality,  too,  gives  the  work- 
man a  pride  in  his  work;  and  care  and  determination 
for  excellence,  the  best  possible,  make  the  workman  an 
artist.  The  difference  between  the  stone-cutter  and  the 
sculptor  is  that  the  latter  has  his  ideal  figure  to  hew  out ; 
the  former  cuts  patterns.  The  ditch-digger  whose  work 
is  absolutely  accurate  and  fitted  to  its  purpose,  and  who 
can  plan  his  ditch  to  fit  its  purpose  is  an  engineer.  KTo 
better  moral  lesson  can  be  given  children  than  to  let 
them  study  the  work  of  the  men  in  any  trade  whose 
ideal  of  excellence  gives  them  a  pride  in  their  work, 
however  humble  it  may  be,  which  lifts  that  work  from 
drudgery  to  art.    This  counts  in  the  elevation  of  society. 

ADAPTATION    OF    CURRICTJLUM    TO    NEEDS. 

Something  has  been  said  of  the  educational  value  of 
the  different  studies,  but  the  question  of  the  most  useful 


66  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

social  studies  is  in  many  cases  one  of  an  elective  versus 
a  fixed  curriculum. 

Often  now  we  drive  our  pupils  out  of  our  schools  at 
an  early  age  because  we  are  not  ready  so  to  adapt  our 
curriculum  to  local  needs  that  the  parents  and  pupils 
will  feel  that  they  are  getting  direct  practical  benefit 
from  their  studies.  I  have  little  question  that  in  the 
not  far  distant  future  we  shall  go  much  further  than  we 
do  now  to  find  out  what  local  needs  are,  and  then  we 
shall  adapt  our  studies  both  as  regards  subject  matter 
and  methods  of  teaching  so  as  to  meet  those  local  needs. 
This  will,  of  course,  involve  not  merely  a  greater  flex- 
ibility in  our  curriculum  in  the  lower  schools,  but  it  will 
involve  also  the  establishment  of  more  commercial  and 
industrial  high  schools  side  by  side  with  the  schools 
especially  adapted  for  instruction  in  languages,  litera- 
ture and  sciences.  The  needs  of  each  pupil  will  be 
provided  for  in  the  way  best  fitted  for  his  social  duties 
in  any  station  however  low  or  however  high  which  he 
may  find  it  best  to  fill.  It  is  worth  careful  notice  also 
that,  if  the  studies  of  the  school  curriculum  are  cor- 
related about  this  central  purpose,  each  study  will  so 
aid  in  teaching  the  others  that  much  time  will  be  saved 
for  more  detailed  work  on  the  themes  of  most  impor- 
tance. 

Beyond  any  question  also  the  same  principle  of  social 
benefit  will  be  used  in  order  to  select  our  pupils  in  such 
a  way  as  to  produce  the  best  social  results.  We  hear 
very  much  regarding  a  general  education  for  all  our 
citizens,  especially  in  a  republic.  One  of  the  most  ex- 
cellent characteristics  of  our  American  government  has 


THE  SOCIAL  BASIS  OF  EDUCATION,  67 

been  our  readiness  to  devote  money  and  time  to  the 
schooling  of  our  future  citizens.  There  can  be  no  doubt, 
too,  that  in  practically  all  cases  where  children  are  of 
sound  mind,  it  is  wise  to  give  to  them  the  rudiments  of 
an  education  and  thus  to  put  into  their  hands  the  tools 
of  language  and  elementary  mathematics  and  some 
knowledge  of  the  sciences.  But  shall  we  go  further  in 
this  same  direction  without  considering  the  special  ap- 
titudes of  individual  students?  Is  it  not  best  to  let 
each  student  under  careful  advice  see  where  he  can 
probably  be  ultimately  of  best  use  to  society,  and  then 
fit  his  education  to  his  needs?  Society  needs  preach- 
ers, lawyers,  teachers,  managers  of  great  business  estab- 
lishments, etc. ;  but  society  needs  also  horseshoers,  mule 
drivers,  ditch  diggers,  common  sailors ;  and  very  many 
people  are  by  nature  and  by  circumstances  outside  of 
the  schools  fitted  rather  for  some  of  the  latter  occupa- 
tions than  for  the  former.  It  is  much  better  for  society, 
as  well  as  for  the  individual,  that  a  man  who  has  the 
gifts  for  that  calling  should  be  a  good  mule  driver  or  an 
expert  sailor  before  the  mast  rather  than  a  poor  doctor ; 
and  there  is  no  reason  why  the  common  factory  hand 
with  a  taste  for  mechanics  should  not  be  so  trained  in 
our  public  schools  that  he  may  not  merely  do  his  work 
in  the  shop  much  better  than  he  does  it  now,  but  may 
also  perhaps  be  given  a  spirit  of  individual  initiative 
which  will  lead  him  to  improve  the  mechanical  pro- 
cesses of  his  work  as  well  as  the  general  intellectual  and 
social  stimulus  which  will  encourage  him  to  take  a  far 
more  intelligent  part  in  local  government  than  most  such 
men  do  now,  and  to  become  a  much  more  useful  citizen. 


68  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS.  i 

i 

I  recall  that  some  years  ago  I  heard  William  H.  Bald-  i 
win,  Jr.,  in  a  most  inspiring  talk  to  college  students,  ; 
advise  them :  '^  See  what  you  want  to  do  for  your  | 
own  enjoyment  in  life;  see  where  you  can  be  of  most  ; 
use  to  society;  then  take  up  that  line  of  work  and  I 
develop  yourself  best  in  that  direction.''  We  shall  guide  5 
our  pupils  ultimately  to  fit  themselves  for  the  greatest  \ 
usefulness,  and  we  shall  make  our  curriculum  so  flexible  ] 
that  it  can  be  adapted  to  individual  needs.  Besides  \ 
that,  the  teaching  of  citizenship  must  permeate  all  the  I 
courses  in  all  subjects.  The  only  thing  of  real  conse-  ' 
quence  in  any  study  is  the  human  relationships  in  that  1 
study.  Are  we  studying  geography,  botany,  history,  j 
literature  ?  What  is  a  valley  good  for  ?  For  the  satis-  ^ 
faction  of  human  needs,  nothing  else.  Why  has  the  ; 
violet  perfume  ?  For  what  are  the  stars  shining  ?  We  \ 
do  not  know  what  purpose  Divine  Providence  may  have  i 
with  reference  to  them ;  but  by  the  standard  of  our  needs  j 
and  those  of  society,  the  significance  of  violet  and  moun-  \ 
tain  and  stars,  and  poet's  song  and  the  tale  of  heroes'  i 
deeds  is  their  benefit  to  humanity,  their  joy -giving  and  ; 
uplifting  power.  ^ 

SELECTION    OF    TEACHERS. 

This  same  point  of  view  also  in  our  school  training  \ 
will  encourage  us  so  to  select  our  teachers  as  to  produce  | 
the  desired  result.  We  shall  have  the  teachers  who  will|j 
best  fit  pupils  for  their  work  in  society.  ! 

Primarily,  our  teachers  need  to  be  chosen  on  account 
of  the  force  of  their  personality.     It  matters  little  how  j 
much  teachers  know  unless  their  personality  is  such  j 


THE  SOCIAL  BASIS  OF  EDUCATION.  69 

that  their  pupils  have  respect  for  their  judgment  and 
are  glad  to  carry  out  their  wishes.  And,  again,  if  the 
teacher  has  the  personality  which  gives  him  influence 
with  his  pupils,  he  will  be  able  to  make  very  much  better 
use  of  the  knowledge  which  he  possesses,  and  to  acquire 
more  knowledge  as  his  work  progresses. 

Even  the  strongest  teacher,  however,  if  he  is  to  do 
work  along  the  lines  just  considered,  must  be  familiar 
enough  with  business  and  with  the  social  life  of  the  com- 
munity in  which  he  is  teaching  so  that  he,  and  others, 
will  know  that  his  work  takes  hold  on  life  as  it  is.  It 
is  his  purpose  to  connect  his  teaching  with  the  daily 
life  of  his  pupils  and  of  the  community.  He  must, 
therefore,  show  good  sense  and  good  judgment  in  con- 
nection with  the  business  affairs  of  the  community  and 
with  the  social  movements,  of  whatever  nature,  in  which 
his  pupils  and  their  parents  are  interested. 

In  many  of  our  rural  communities,  the  blacksmith  is 
the  center  of  the  industrial  life.  It  is  he  who  repairs 
the  machines  of  the  farmer,  and  the  tools  of  the  car- 
penter, who  shoes  the  horses  of  the  producers  of  all  kinds 
and,  in  various  ways,  makes  life  more  comfortable  and 
business  more  profitable.  How  can  a  teacher  who  has 
never  been  inside  a  blacksmith  shop  and  who  knows 
nothing  of  the  work  done  there  meet  many  of  her  pupils 
on  common  ground,  until  she  sees  enough  of  this  work 
to  know  it  as  an  important  factor  in  the  business  life  of 
the  community? 

It  is  perhaps  an  unfortunate  fact,  but  it  is  a  fact, 
that  to  a  considerable  extent  the  comfort  and  harmony 
of  a  community  is  dependent  upon  the  punctuality  and 


70  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

faithfulness  of  a  dressmaker  or  of  a  tailor.  The  signi- 
ficance of  the  work  of  these  artisans  (or  possibly  artists) 
is  perhaps  appreciated  enough  by  most  people;  but  the 
conditions  under  which  they  work,  the  difficulties  which 
confront  them,  are  known  only  to  those  who  have  taken 
some  pains  to  investigate  carefully. 

Some  teachers  who  have  grown  up  in  communities 
similar  to  those  in  which  they  are  teaching  have  ac- 
quired through  their  own  experience  much  of  this  knowl- 
edge of  industrial  processes;  but  probably,  in  a  great 
majority  of  cases,  the  teachers  would  decidedly 
strengthen  their  hold  upon  their  pupils  by  looking  some- 
what carefully  into  the  business  life  of  the  community 
in  which  they  teach. 

This  common  lack  of  business  knowledge  is  empha- 
sized very  strongly  by  the  growing  demand  for  a  larger 
proportion  of  men  as  teachers  in  our  schools.  Speak- 
ing generally,  it  has  been  my  experience  that  women 
are  more  faithful  and  better  teachers  than  men;  but 
I  have  no  doubt  that  the  proportion  of  women  among 
our  teachers  is  too  large  for  the  best  interest  of  the 
schools,  largely  because  they  are,  relatively  speaking, 
deficient  in  certain  important  kinds  of  industrial  ex- 
perience. In  order  to  come  most  closely  into  touch 
with  life,  our  children  need  contact  with  the  business 
world  as  well  as  with  the  home.  Beyond  doubt  they 
need  the  instruction  and  influence  of  women  fully  as 
much,  probably  more,  than  they  need  the  influence  of 
men;  but  they  need  both.  In  most  communities  the 
sexes  are  substantially  equal  in  number ;  it  is  probably 
not  far  from  the  truth  to  say  that  they  are  equal  in  in- 


THE  SOCIAL  BASIS  OF  EDUCATION.  71 

fluence.  Let  their  personal  influence  in  the  schools, 
then,  be  made  substantially  equal,  in  order  that  the 
training  of  the  schools  may  conform  more  closely  to  the 
needs  of  social  life. 

In  the  second  place,  in  the  selection  of  our  teachers 
we  should  require  ability  to  teach,  skill  in  presenting 
the  subject  matter  of  instruction,  so  as  to  accomplish 
best  the  desired  results.  Some  few  teachers,  thru 
their  temperament,  their  sympathy  with  their  pupils, 
and  their  habit  of  influencing  those  about  them,  seem 
to  acquire  almost  instinctively  the  best  methods  of 
giving  to  their  pupils  knowledge  and  of  leading  them 
also  to  acquire  good  habits  of  thought  and  action.  In 
the  great  majority  of  cases,  however,  skill  in  teaching 
must  be  a  matter  of  careful  and  somewhat  extensive 
training.  The  teachers  must  possess  not  merely  knowl- 
edge of  the  special  subjects  they  are  to  teach  in  the 
schools — arithmetic,  geography,  history,  and  the  rest — 
but  they  must  also  see  each  of  these  subjects  in  its  due 
relations  to  others  and  to  the  practical  life  of  the  com- 
munity for  the  service  of  which  their  pupils  are  being 
prepared.  To  give  this  special  knowledge  is  one  of  the 
chief  tasks  imposed  upon  the  normal  schools  and  other 
institutions  for  the  training  of  teachers.  In  addition, 
they  must  learn  the  best  ways  of  controlling  and  direct- 
ing the  thoughts  and  activities  of  the  pupils  in  their 
charge,  so  as  to  enable  them  most  readily  and  most  thor- 
oughly to  master  the  subjects  presented  and  also  to 
make  those  subjects  of  practical  assistance  in  perform- 
ing the  duties  of  life. 

In  the  lower  grades  of  our  public  schools  the  proper 


72  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

co-ordination  of  the  subjects  taught  and  their  connec- 
tions with  social  life  are  largely  a  matter  of  the  em- 
phasis to  be  placed  upon  the  different  topics  in  each 
study,  and  this  requires  a  most  careful  planning  of  the 
work  from  week  to  week,  as  well  as  the  skill  to  adapt  it 
to  the  needs  of  the  community  and  to  individual  pupils. 
In  the  case  of  higher  institutions,  beginning  with  the 
high  school  this  correlation  is  brought  about  largely  by 
the  selection  of  studies,  and  in  the  college  and  university 
by  the  use  of  a  properly  regulated  elective  system. 
Each  student,  as  he  approaches  the  time  when  he  is  to 
take  up  independently  his  life  work,  brings  himself 
thru  his  special  studies  into  immediate  contact  with 
that  work,  and  this  fact  the  teacher  needs  to  keep  always 
in  view. 

The  methods  of  fitting  pupils  for  social  service  differ 
naturally  in  schools  of  different  grades  and  in  different 
communities.  The  aim  of  the  schools  of  all  grades, 
however,  is  substantially  the  same.  If  this  aim  is  kept 
prominently  in  mind  it  will  be  seen  that  not  merely  is 
the  state  justified  in  supporting  schools,  but  that  it  has 
imposed  upon  it  the  duty  of  providing  institutions  of 
all  classes  and  grades  which  can  fit  students  of  all  tastes 
and  degrees  of  advancement  for  the  best  service  to  its 
citizens. 

If  a  teacher  is  himself  imbued  with  this  social  con- 
sciousness then  there  can  be  no  question  that  the 
study  of  history,  the  study  of  literature,  the  study  of 
any  and  of  all  the  subjects  of  the  schools  will  be  taught 
from  this  standard.  Whenever  we  are  speaking  of  a 
valley  in  geography,  we  shall  ask  what  is  the  special 


THE  SOCIAL  BASIS  OF  EDUCATION,  73 

significance  of  that  valley  ?  Is  it  that  the  soil  in  that 
valley  is  productive,  that  more  people  can  live  there, 
that  human  needs  can  be  better  satisfied  from  the  soil 
in  the  valleys  than  from  that  in  the  mountains  ?  And 
why  has  the  mountain  value  ?  Because  the  beauty  of  a 
mountain  with  the  sunlight  on  its  snow-crowned  top  and 
the  mines  with  their  treasures  in  its  heart  is  something 
that  will  gratify  human  needs; — and  the  valley,  the 
mountain  and  the  sunlight  have  no  value,  no  benefit  for 
our  purposes  as  teachers,  except  as  they  are  related  to 
the  satisfaction  of  some  human  need.  If  our  teachers 
will  but  keep  always  in  mind  the  thought  of  social  hap- 
piness and  welfare  and  the  needs  of  humanity,  there 
will  after  all  be  very  little  trouble  about  finding  means 
and  methods  by  which  we  can  teach  good  citizenship  in 
the  public  schools. 


/ 


III. 

THE  MAKING-  OF  CITIZENS  * 

"  The  true  test  of  civilization  is,  not  the  census,  nor  the  size 
of  cities,  nor  the  crops, — no,  but  the  kind  of  man  the  country 
turns  out."— Emerson. 

There  is,  perhaps,  no  other  subject  that  is  of  more 
constant,  universal  interest  to  men  than  politics;  none 
that  is  more  perennially  fresh  and  interesting.  And  yet, 
singular  as  it  may  seem,  there  is  probably  no  class  of 
duties  resting  upon  our  citizens  that  is  on  the  whole  so 
thoughtlessly  performed.  People  commonly  assume 
that  they  know  everything  on  that  subject.  They  talk 
upon  it,  not  to  learn,  but  with  the  hope,  vain  hope,  of 
convincing  others ;  or,  if  they  are  of  the  same  political 
party,  of  indulging  in  scornful  remarks  concerning  their 
opponents.  Even  in  the  great  educational  campaigns, 
the  political  speakers  who  are  to  instruct  the  people,  ap- 
peal rather  to  prejudice  than  to  reason.  It  makes  and 
holds  votes  better,  and  it  is  votes  they  are  after.  But 
these  facts  (and  no  thoughtful  person  will  deny  that  they 
are  facts)  show  that  there  is  need  in  the  intervals  be- 
tween campaigns  of  coolly  considering  some  of  the  fun- 
damental principles  of  government — this  for  ourselves ; 
and  the  threatening  aspect  of  socialistic,  or  rather  of 

♦Address  given  in  1889,  heretofore  not  published. 

75 


76  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

anarchistic  movements,  on  the  one  hand,  with  the 
equally  threatening  aspect,  in  certain  senses,  of  party 
strife  on  the  other,  make  it  imperative  that  our  children 
also  be  carefully  trained  in  a  knowledge  of  the  princi- 
ples of  citizenship. 

It  is  evident  that,  in  the  discussion  of  such  a  subject 
as  the  one  before  us,  in  so  far  as  it  concerns  our  public 
schools  at  least,  the  question  should  not  be  limited  to 
the  training  of  voters,  but  should  include  men,  women, 
children — all  who  owe  allegiance  to  their  country  and 
w^ho  claim  protection  from  the  State.  It  would  surely 
seem  unnatural,  when  speaking  with  reference  to  our 
public  schools,  a  large  majority  of  whose  pupils  are 
girls,  to  leave  them  out;  it  is  equally  clear  that  they, 
no  less  than  the  boys,  have  a  deep  and  abiding  interest 
in  the  subject.  If  good  society  is  the  foundation  of  all 
good  government — and  no  one  questions  this — woman 
surely  has  her  full  share  in  it,  and  she  should  receive 
special  training  as  much  as  men.  It  might  even  be 
urged  successfully  that  it  is  still  more  necessary  for  wo- 
men to  receive  this  training ;  for  all  grant  that  woman's 
influence  in  society  is  the  greater.  She  is  the  queen  in 
this  realm,  at  least.  Indeed,  the  strongest  argument 
that  I  remember  to  have  heard  urged  against  woman 
suffrage  is  that  thereby  a  woman  would  have  but  one 
vote,  whereas  now,  through  her  influence,  she  often  has 
several,  l^ow  men  feel  it  their  duty  to  care  for  the 
rights  of  women,  to  defend  them;  then  they  would  be 
expected  to  defend  themselves.  But  granting  that  the 
need  is  the  same  in  both  sexes,  training  for  citizenship 
means  training  to  be  patriots,  lovers  of  our  country.    We 


THE  MAKING  OF  CITIZENS.  77 

strive  to  stir  this  feeling  in  our  school  children  by  pro- 
viding flags  for  display  on  the  anniversaries  of  import- 
ant events,  by  celebrating  in  appropriate  ways  im- 
portant days  in  history  and  in  the  lives  of  our  nation's 
heroes ;  and  these  provisions,  if  properly  carried  out,  are 
excellent  so  far  as  they  go:  but  after  all,  this  spirit  of 
pride  in  our  country  and  love  for  its  institutions  is 
largely  instinctive.  This  alone,  especially  for  American 
children,  is  of  lesser  consequence.  We  need  more  than 
this.  Patriotism  means  real,  genuine  devotion  to  our 
country's  good.  It  may  be  well  to  feel  that  our  country 
is  the  greatest  in  the  world,  that  it  soon  will  be  the  most 
populous,  that  it  is  the  home  of  free  and  liberal  institu- 
tions ;  but  if  we  stop  here,  we  have  done  nothing,  or  al- 
most nothing,  to  prevent  the  decay  and  ruin  of  these  in- 
stitutions. True  patriots  wish  their  country  to  be  per- 
manent, wish  that  coming  centuries  may  look  back  on 
a  prosperous,  continuous  history;  but  neither  wide 
reaches  of  territory,  millions  of  population,  nor  a  re- 
publican form  of  government,  can  make  a  nation  per- 
manent, and  its  name  illustrious. 

ITor,  again,  is  mere  permanency  of  governmental 
form  the  highest  end  to  be  attained.  Men's  lives  are 
measured  by  deeds,  not  years.  H^amilton,  Lincoln, 
Keats,  Napoleon,  were,  in  years,  not  long-lived.  How 
shall  we  judge  a  nation's  life  ?  If  we  look  back  into  the 
gray  dawn  of  history,  and  seek  for  the  nations  whose  in- 
fluence has  been  permanent,  we  do  not  look  to  China. 
Every  man's  thought  turns  promptly  to  the  beautiful 
city  by  the  Aegean,  where  an  old  bare-footed  man  walked 
the  street  and  stopped  the  idle  talkers  to  inquire,  "  What 


78  CITIZENSHIP  AIjfD  THE  SCHOOLS. 

is  justice  ?  What  is  beauty  ?  What  is  truth  ? ''  We 
think  of  the  groves  of  the  Academy  where  Plato  taught. 
We  see  virtuous  wisdom  personified  in  the  Pallas 
Athene  of  Phidias,  standing  with  outstretched  hand  be- 
fore the  world's  most  wonderful  temple,  declaring  to 
her  own,  and  to  all  succeeding  ages,  that  Wisdom  and 
Virtue  must  be  crowned  heads  of  the  State.  China 
made  a  constitution  and  a  religion  that  with  unchanging 
form  have  outlasted  centuries ;  Greece  made  men  whose 
thoughts  will  kindle  the  intellect,  touch  the  sensibili- 
ties, and  ennoble  the  souls  of  generations  yet  unborn, 
so  long  as  goodness,  beauty,  and  truth  live  here  on 
earth.  Which  nation  had  the  higher  destiny  ?  Toward 
which  should  we  strive  ?  True  love  of  country  means 
then,  not  mere  pride  in  country,  but  determination  to 
lift  our  country  to  its  noblest  height ;  and  this  need  of 
elevating  our  present  institutions  makes  still  clearer 
the  need  of  training  for  citizenship ;  for  the  growth  of 
states,  must  be  through  a  bettering  citizenship,  and  such 
an  improvement,  though  it  may  be  steady,  is  but  slow. 
Patriotic  lovers  of  the  race  have  alternated  between 
hope  and  despair  since  civilization  began.  When  Greece 
appeared  in  history,  and  under  Pericles  seemed  almost 
to  reach  the  ideal  of  refinement  and  beauty,  it  seemed 
that  the  dawn  had  come ;  but  the  world  soon  sank  again 
into  barbarism.  When,  early  in  the  fourth  century, 
Constantine,  after  his  conversion,  removed  from  the 
early  Christians  the  danger  of  persecution,  and  made 
Christianity  no  longer  a  crime  and  a  disgrace  but  an 
honor,  men  thought  that  Christ  was  soon  to  bring  the 
whole  world  to  his  blessed  peace;  but  the  Dark  Ages 


THE  MAKING  OF  CITIZENS,  79 

followed.  In  the  time  of  the  Keformation,  too,  church 
and  state  were  soon  to  be  purified ;  but  the  cruelty  of  the 
Thirty  Years  War,  the  oppression  of  Protestants,  proved 
that  hope  was  still  to  look  forward  for  ages  before  the 
wished  for  transformation.  Adlr  later,  Eousseau's 
thought  of  the  "natural  man''  from  which  grew  the 
doctrine  of  liberty,  equality,  fraternity,  the  thought 
that  the  common  man  was  King,  and  that  the  people 
should  rule,  which  kindled  the  French  Eevolution, 
seemed  to  some  to  have  solved  the  problem  of  political 
excellence ;  and  from  that  day  to  this  many  have  believed 
that  the  rule  of  the  people  means  prosperity  and  happi- 
ness. But  now,  in  our  day,  the  tide  again  is  rolling 
back;  the  pessimists  are  mourning  over  the  ignorance, 
the  corruption,  the  vices  of  the  people,  and  while  some 
long  for  anarchy,  others,  and  those  the  majority,  wish 
for  the  strong  hand  of  the  law,  if  not  justice,  to  quell  the 
danger  of  anarchy.  Nevertheless,  hope  is  the  proper 
state  of  mind;  the  progress  throughout  the  ages  has 
been  marked,  and  the  progress  will  continue.  But  our 
progress  must  be  slow;  there  is  no  royal  road  to  the 
highest  civilization,  to  the  best  state.  This  must  come 
through  the  careful,  patient  training  of  the  individual. 
In  training  for  citizenship,  then,  our  first,  and  if 
this  is  well  learned  it  need  be  our  only  lesson,  is  the 
teaching  of  proper  ideals.  The  ideals  of  our  people 
must  be  changed,  if  our  State  is  to  realize  its  highest 
destiny.  What  are  our  ideals  now  ?  Look  at  the  men 
about  us.  Let  us  look  at  ourselves.  What  do  we  con- 
sider success?  So  long  as  there  is  no  flagrant  immor- 
ality, do  we  not  measure  men's  success  in  the  main  by 


80  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

their  wealth  ?  Is  not  our  constant  aim  ^^  getting  on  in 
the  world  ? ''  The  advantages  of  wealth  are,  of  course, 
not  to  be  underestimated.  Wealth  is  a  necessary  pre- 
liminary to  many  of  the  highest  advantages  of  culture. 
But  what  proporti^of  our  money-makers  have  a  clearly 
defined  end  beyond  the  money  getting!  Even  teachers 
and  preachers  estimate  the  excellence  of  their  positions 
by  their  salaries.  Salaries  are  good,  are  a  necessary  ac- 
companiment ;  but  this  should  not  be  the  sole  test.  In 
every  country  we  need  producers  of  wealth,  but  we  must 
have  scholars,  thinkers,  philosophers,  ^s  well.  Socrates, 
the  most  nearly  ideal  man  of  antiquity,  was  poor.  He 
walked  the  streets  of  Athens  bare-headed  and  clothed 
in  plain  garments.  Socrates  never  ^^  got  on  in  the 
world,"  but  he  lives  to-day  more  truly  than  any  other 
man  of  his  age.  So,  too,  even  Christ's  life  from  this 
standpoint  seemed  a  failure.  He  did  not  make  money; 
he  never  "  got  on ;  "  but  to-day  his  power  is  increasing 
in  the  world  as  never  before.  The  ideals  of  Athens 
were  well  set  forth  by  Pericles  in  his  oration  in  the 
Keramicus  over  the  dead  who  had  fallen  at  Marathon: 
"  We  aim  at  a  life  beautiful  without  extravagance,  con- 
templative without  unmanliness.  Wealth  is  in  our  eyes 
a  thing  not  for  ostentation  but  for  reasonable  use ;  and 
it  is  not  the  acknowledgment  of  poverty  that  we  think 
disgraceful,  but  the  want  of  endeavor  to  avoid  it." 
Some  American  orator  might  set  up  this  ideal;  none 
would  be  bold  enough  to  claim,  as  did  Pericles  for  his 
people,  that  we  have  attained  it.  If  we  are  to  have  our 
ideal  state,  the  principles  of  Socrates  and  of  Christ  must 
be  taught  and  must  be  lived.     It  must  be  taught,  not 


THE  MAKING  OF  CITIZENS.  81 

as  a  mere  sentiment,  but  as  a  practical  fact,  that  he 
that  loseth  his  life  for  high  and  worthy  ends  shall 
surely  find  it;  that  no  investment  is  so  sure  as  an  in- 
vestment in  brains,  in  character.  We  can  have  no  state 
that  will  live;  no  state  that  will  really  benefit  ages  to 
come,  until  we  have  one  that  will  make  men.  I  do 
not  mean  to  imply  that  our  country  has  not  made  any 
good  men  and  great  men ;  but  it  is  surely  true  that  the 
tendency  is  strongly  against  their  production,  and  that 
the  great  mass  of  our  citizens  to-day  have  not  their 
eyes  turned  toward  the  highest.  Our  first  lesson,  then, 
needs  to  be  given  not  merely  to  our  children,  but  to  our- 
selves as  well.  As  the  mainspring  of  action  is  senti- 
ment, feeling,  we  must  in  every  way  kindle  in  minds 
about  us  and  in  our  own  minds  the  ideals  of  excellence 
for  individuals  and  for  the  State  that  will  help  us  lift 
ourselves  and  society  with  us  into  the  clearer  light  of 
culture,  refinement  and  truth.  When  this  is  done  the 
training  for  citizenship  is  complete.  When  any  fair 
proportion  of  our  citizens  have  the  higher  ideals  of  the 
State,  and  of  its  function  as  the  promoter  of  the  noble 
and  the  true,  fixed  in  their  hearts,  the  knowledge  of 
means  will  come. 

But  it  may  still  be  well  to  consider  somewhat  specifi- 
cally how  these  ideals  can  be  made  practical,  how  these 
things  can  be  taught.  The  love  of  the  practical  in  our 
American  character  is  not  a  sign  of  degeneracy ;  but  we 
need  first  to  consider  what  it  is  that  we  think  practical. 
Are  the  ideal  and  the  practical  at  odds  ? 

Many  of  our  so-called  practical  men  sneer  at  mere 
sentiment,  mere  ideals,  and  very  properly;  but  they 


82  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS, 

mistake  when  they  assume,  as  they  often  do,  that  the 
love  of  the  ideal,  of  the  perfect,  is  not  practical,  or  that 
scientists  and  thinkers,  even  artists,  are  not  practical 
men,  and  that,  too,  if  we  include  painters,  sculptors, 
teachers,  and  preachers  in  the  list.  Most  of  us  when 
boys  talked  with  our  boyish  friends  a  block  away  by 
means  of  a  telephone  made  of  string  and  tin  cans  cov- 
ered with  a  membrane.  This  same  principle,  carried 
toward  the  ideal,  nearly  to  perfection,  has  in  our  modern 
telephone  revolutionized  the  world  of  trade.  The  pipe 
organ  is  the  willow  whistle  idealized,  and  the  men  who 
have  worked  out  these  ideals,  whether  they  have  gained 
wealth  or  not,  are  practical  men.  These  inventions  are 
all  based  on  principles  learned  by  scientists,  the  obscure 
thinkers,  in  the  laboratory.  Surely  the  painter  of  the 
Sistine  Madonna,  whose  idealized  mother  with  the 
Christ  Child,  has  won  grateful  words  from  thousands 
and  hundreds  of  thousands  who,  almost  with  tears 
trembling  on  their  eye-lashes,  have  drunk  in  its  spirit  of 
purity,  sweetness,  and  love, — surely  Raphael  was  a 
practical  man,  as  much  so  as  the  baker  who  feeds  us; 
and  is  it  not  shortsightedness  to  say  of  these  practical 
men,  who  minister  to  our  soul's  needs,  that  they  are  not 
as  valuable  citizens,  that  they  are  not  even  more  valu- 
able citizens,  than  those  who  minister  to  the  body  alone  ? 
Both  are  needed,  but  the  baker  will  come  everywhere ; 
no  danger  that  we  shall  not  call  for  him.  The  artist, 
the  poet,  men  whose  influence  is  yet  more  far  reaching, 
men  whose  lives  will  give  permanence  and  glory  to  the 
state,  these  men  too  are  needed ;  but  they  will  not  come 
unless  called. 


THE  MAKING  OF  CITIZENS,  83 

If,  then,  we  enter  our  schoolrooms  and  our  families 
and  ask  how  we  shall  train  our  children  for  citizenship, 
with  this  idea  of  true  citizenship  before  us,  with  this 
idea  of  the  practical,  the  task  becomes  an  easy  one ;  we 
find  material  everywhere.  If,  for  example,  in  reading 
and  studying  literature,  in  the  reading  of  Shakespeare, 
we  ask  the  cause  of  Macbeth's  downfall,  he  himself  an- 
swers :  ''  'Tis  vaulting  ambition  which  o'erleaps  itself, 
and  falls  on  the  other  side."  Then  the  question  at  once 
comes  to  mind,  is  there  a  similar  tendency  in  public  life 
to-day?  Will  similar  results  follow?  If  so,  why? 
Daniel  Webster  had  a  like  experience  in  his  dallying 
with  the  slavery  question.  Why  not  study  politics  in 
Shakespeare?  Caesar,  Eichard  III,  Othello,  Hamlet, 
Henry  IV,  all,  and  more,  have  lessons  of  politics,  of 
citizenship,  that  the  teacher  thinking  upon  that  subject 
can  not  fail  to  see ;  but,  after  all,  the  lessons  here,  as  in 
all  history  where  long  periods  of  time  are  taken  into 
account,  are  all  the  same,  told  with  tireless  reiteration. 
All  comes  back  to  the  one  fundamental  principle.  The 
right  shall  triumph  in  the  end;  the  wrong  shall  fail. 
Geography  and  statistics  are  sometimes  called  the  eyes 
of  history.  This  is  the  soul  of  history.  Some  call 
it  the  Providence  of  God  in  history,  and  say  that  states- 
men cannot  leave  God  out  as  a  factor  in  public  affairs. 
It  is  another  way  of  stating  the  principle  of  human  prog- 
ress. Not  that  the  good  escape  death  or  poverty,  not 
that  the  bad  fail  to  secure  wealth  and  position ;  but  when 
histor^f  and  jioets  tell  the  story,  when  the  few  short 
decades  of  men's  life  melt  into  the  centuries  of  history, 
poverty,  wealth,  position — even  death  itself  are  but  little 


84  CtTlZENSBtP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

things.  What  woman  who  has  felt  the  sacredness  of  a 
daughter's  love  would  not  rather  be  Cordelia,  dead  in 
her  father's  arms,  faithful  to  the  end,  than  to  have  se- 
cured life  by  any  shift  of  conscience?  Desdemona, 
Othello,  Hamlet,  were  fortunate  in  their  deaths;  for 
they  were  true  and  consistent  in  their  lives.  So  too,  in 
our  history,  Lincoln  fell  by  the  assassin's  hand;  but 
what  was  death  to  Lincoln?  His  truth,  his  faith,  his 
wisdom,  have  immortalized  him.  Death  but  opened  the 
portal  for  his  fame. 

So  everywhere  in  history,  if  we  but  read  with  the 
ideal  of  the  truest  patriotism,  the  highest  citizenship, 
ever  before  our  eyes,  the  pages  of  facts  light  up  with 
meaning  and  with  lessons  for  our  everyday  life  as  citi- 
zens. We  cannot  train  citizens  to  any  noticeable  extent 
by  telling  mere  facts.  For  example,  is  it  important  to 
know  exactly  the  date  of  the  battle  of  Quebec?  Is  it 
even  of  much  consequence  in  the  long  run  to  know  the 
stories  of  the  valiant  generals  who  so  nobly  died  on  the 
plains  of  Abraham?  It  is  inspiring  to  feel  the  spirit 
of  the  dying  Montcalm  for  whom  death  had  no  terrors 
in  defeat ;  still  more  elevating  if  possible,  with  the  glad 
dying  words  of  Wolfe  to  join  his  eulogy  of  the  poet 
Gray,  showing  how  the  noblest  thought  and  purest 
melody  had  reached  the  heart  of  the  warrior.  But 
what  lessons  of  citizenship  have  we  here?  One  great 
one — 'Tis  sweet  to  die  for  one's  country.  But  when, 
also,  to  these  facts  we  add  the  far  sighted  views  of  Pitt, 
England's  great  prime  minister,  who  had  foreseen  that 
England's  victory  in  America  meant  English  civiliza- 
tion throughout  the  western  world,  and  when  we  ask 


THE  MAKING  OF  CITIZENS,  85 

ourselves  and  our  pupils  why  it  was  better  that  Wolfe 
should  have  conquered,  and  that  English  civilization, 
with  its  germ  of  self-government  should  succeed  instead 
of  French  rule,  with  its  hierarchy  of  Church  and  State, 
we  reach  principles  of  citizenship  and  statesmanship. 
Was  it  merely  Wolfe  that  conquered  Montcalm  ?  Had 
Montcalm  conquered  Wolfe  the  result  might  have  been 
delayed,  but  ultimately  it  would  have  been  the  same. 
The  words  of  Burke  and  Fox  but  a  few  years  later  show 
that  the  spirit  of  liberty  was  stirring  in  England  as  well 
as  in  her  colonies ;  and  when  freedom,  love  of  home  and 
native  land,  fight  against  personal  rule,  love  of  adven- 
ture, and  thirst  for  wealth;  when  general  intelligence 
and  liberty  fight  against  ignorance  and  bigotry  and 
tyranny  the  result  is  not  doubtful,  no  matter  what  the 
odds  may  be.  The  knowledge  of  this  historic  principle, 
enforced  by  the  example  of  the  battle  of  Quebec,  is  worth 
more  as  training  for  citizenship  than  all  the  mere  fact 
history  of  the  schools.  But  one  word  more  on  this  point. 
For  most  of  us,  older  as  well  as  younger,  the  charm  of 
history  and  the  value  of  history,  too,  as  a  means  of  train- 
ing, lies  in  men.  We  need  to  recognize,  our  children 
need  to  know  that  the  great  men  of  history  have  been 
great  only  as  they  have  been  right.  Some  great  men 
doubtless  have  been  bad;  some  bad  men,  possibly,  have 
been  great,  but  their  greatness  lies  not  in  their  evil 
deeds,  but  in  their  good  ones.  Caesar  was  not  great  be- 
cause he  was  the  boldest  speculator  of  his  day,  willing 
to  run  a  million  dollars  in  debt  with  the  only  hope  of 
payment  success  in  securing  office ;  nor  because  he  could 
order  the  cold-blooded  murder  of  hundreds  of  thousands 


86  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS, 

of  innocent  women  and  children,  although  these  facts 
show  his  qualities  of  character.  Our  histories  wisely 
gloss  these  facts.  He  is  great  in  history  because,  with 
wise  forethought,  he  opened  whole  territories,  all  west- 
em  Europe,  to  the  influence  of  the  most  highly  civilized 
nation  on  earth;  because  he  showed  the  wisest,  most 
far-reaching  desire  for  the  good  of  the  people  under  him 
of  any  man  of  his  age.  He  was  successful  ultimately 
only  in  plans  that  were  far-reaching  for  good,  and  he 
failed  and  fell  ignominiously  in  his  over-reaching  for 
personal  power.  So  Alexander,  Cromwell,  Richelieu, 
Charles  V.,  !N"apoleon,  Bismarck,  Gladstone  live  in  his- 
tory as  great  men  only  for  the  good  they  have  accom- 
plished. Some  of  them  were  bad,  and  did  evil  deeds, 
and  for  these,  too,  they  received  their  reward.  Witness 
Alexander's  pitiable  death,  and  Napoleon's  lonely  exile. 
The  good  they  did  lives  after  them;  the  evil  is  blotted 
from  the  pages  of  history,  or  when  retained  lives  only  to 
their  shame,  like  the  ill-used  talents  of  Themistocles,  not 
to  add  to  their  greatness.  How  strongly  the  life  of 
Washington  enforces  this  truth.  The  more  closely  we 
look  into  his  life,  the  better  we  know  him,  the  more 
surely  we  see  that  the  key  to  his  success  was  his  sterling 
uprightness  of  character.  Men  trusted  him ;  they  knew 
that  he  would  not  deceive.  Others  were  in  many  respects 
his  superiors;  in  this  respect  his  only  equal  in  our  his- 
tory has  been  Lincoln,  the  only  man  whose  name  men 
will  consent  to  have  written  beside  his,  the  man  whom 
Lowell  so  happily  and  truly  calls  "  wise,  steadfast  in  the 
strength  of  God  and  true ;  a  kindly,  earnest,  brave,  far- 
seeing  man;  sagacious,  patient;  new  birth  of  our  new 


THE  MAKING  OF  CITIZENS.  87 

soil,  the  first  American."  If  we  and  our  children  will 
dwell  upon  these  upright,  God-fearing  characters  until 
we  imbibe  some  of  their  spirit,  as  we  shall  do  if  we  see 
that  upon  their  personal  characters  depended  their  suc- 
cess, we  shall  not  be  poorly  trained  for  citizenship. 

So  might  we  go  through  the  school  curriculum  and 
through  the  experiences  of  our  lives.  Everywhere 
something  will  be  found  that  leads  onward  in  this  right 
direction.  Some  studies  point  the  lessons  directly; 
others,  as  mathematics,  the  natural  sciences,  manufac- 
turing, and  trade,  only  indirectly,  as  they  teach  keen- 
ness of  insight,  precision  of  thought,  independence  of 
judgment,  love  of  truth  and  right,  honesty  and  in- 
dividuality, and  as  they  elevate  the  ideals  of  students, 
leading  them  to  a  position  of  independent  judgment  and 
high  aim  from  which  they  can  and  are  willing  to  take 
the  trouble  to  decide  fairly,  according  to  their  knowl- 
edge, the  complex  questions  of  politics. 

And  this,  let  us  insist,  is  the  main  thing.  Our  citi- 
zens do  not  fail  so  much  in  knowledge,  as  in  their  will- 
ingness to  do  their  political  duties.  So  many  of  our 
voters  never  even  attempt  to  learn  their  duty.  They  vote 
as  their  fathers  did,  as  their  employer  does,  as  their  best 
friend  does,  as  the  best  people  in  the  community  do,  very 
many  as  it  is,  in  their  opinion,  for  their  own  private 
pecuniary  interest  to  vote,  and  far  too  many  as  they  are 
paid  to  vote.  This  corruption,  and  perhaps  even  more 
this  indifference,  is  what  constitutes  our  real  danger. 
How  can  our  school  training  directly  meet  this?  We 
teach  civil  government,  to  be  sure, — we  call  it  civics  in 
some  places — but  so  far,  in  spite  of  the  great  improve- 


88  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

ment  in  the  last  few  years,  the  time  has  been  largely 
spent  in  learning  the  forms  of  government,  the  number 
and  classes  of  officers,  and  the  names  of  the  leading  office 
holders.  This  is  well,  but  it  does  not  make  good  citi- 
zens. There  is  little  danger  that  one  will  be  permitted 
to  forget  election  day,  or  that  on  election  day  one  will 
be  allowed  to  forget  the  offices,  or  that  later  in  life  one 
will  not  know  the  duties  of  officers ;  but  the  main  things 
to-day  that  most  nearly  affect  the  voter  he  must  learn 
in  the  schools,  or  he  will  have  little  chance  to  learn  them 
later.  The  politicians  will  do  all  in  their  power  to 
prevent  his  learning  them.  He  should  learn  the  prin- 
ciples on  which  party  government  is  based,  the  circum- 
stances under  which  it  becomes  one's  duty  to  desert  his 
party,  how  far  the  right  of  instructions  to  representa- 
tives should  be  exercised  and  followed — all  those  mat- 
ters that  in  political  life  call  upon  a  man  at  times  to 
assert  his  manhood,  to  stand  alone  against  a  multitude 
of  sneering  partisans.  He  should  know  that  no  devo- 
tion to  selfish  interests,  to  his  party,  or  to  his  party  lead- 
ers, much  as  he  may  admire  them  and  justly  as  he  may 
praise  them,  can  excuse  him  from  thinking  for  himself 
and  from  doing  his  duty  as  he  sees  it  Emerson  well 
says :    "  The  one  thing  in  the  world  of  value  is  the 

active  soul Is  it  not  the  chief  disgrace  in  the 

world  not  to  be  an  unit,  not  to  be  reckoned  one  char- 
acter, not  to  yield  that  peculiar  fruit  which  each  man 
was  created  to  bear,  but  to  be  reckoned  in  the  gross,  in 
the  hundred  or  the  thousand,  of  the  party,  the  section 
to  which  one  belongs,  and  our  opinion  predicted  geo- 
graphically, as  the  north  or  the  south !  '^ 


THE  MAKING  OF  CITIZENS,  89 

I  am  saying  nothing  against  parties.  I  believe  in 
party  and  devotion  to  party,  but  a  man  must  retain  his 
manhood,  he  must  help  do  his  party's  thinking,  and  not 
let  his  party  think  for  him.  When  Lincoln,  contrary 
to  the  advice  of  his  party  leaders,  thrust  upon  Douglas 
the  question  of  the  right  of  a  territory  to  exclude  slav- 
ery, he  was  none  the  less  a  partisan,  but  he  was  the 
more  of  a  man  and  a  better  patriot.  It  is  these  mat- 
ters of  a  citizen's  rights,  and  of  a  citizen's  duties  that 
we  must  teach  our  people,  far  more  than  the  mere 
forms,  the  skeleton  of  government.  We  must  teach 
them  the  spirit  of  our  institutions,  the  spirit  of  liberty. 
Neither  must  we  forget  that  the  spirit  of  independence, 
by  which  we  demand  the  right  and  assume  the  duty  of 
thinking  for  ourselves,  of  determining  without  the  con- 
sent of  party  leaders  what  our  opinions  and  votes  will 
be,  grants  to  all  other  men  the  same  right.  The  spirit 
of  intolerance  regarding  political  opponents  that  is  so 
common  in  the  minds  of  many  of  our  untrained  voters, 
and  on  the  lips  of  our  campaign  orators — though  they, 
unless  personal  opponents,  let  it  go  little  farther — is  sub- 
versive of  the  fundamental  principles  of  popular  govern- 
ment. A  government  by  the  people  means  that  each 
voter  should  think  for  himself ;  and  why  should  any  one 
be  blamed  for  exercising  this  right  ?  As  well  blame  and 
denounce  lawyers  for  taking  opposite  sides  of  a  case. 
What  would  popular  government  be  without  parties  ? 

So,  too,  in  the  lesser  affairs  of  political  life  we  need 
to  teach  the  necessity  of  personal  honor.  It  is  become  a 
common  saying  that  in  no  state  in  the  Union  can  per- 
sonal taxes  be  collected,  because  so  large  a  portion  of 


90  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

our  citizens  are  willing  to  conceal  their  property,  and 
cheat  their  neighbors,  for  the  saving  of  a  few  dollars. 
It  may  be  that  our  tax  laws  are  unjust.  In  many 
states  they  are;  but  we  surely  ought  to  show  our  stu- 
dents, and  as  citizens  we  ought  to  realize,  that  for  a 
man  to  conceal  his  taxable  property  is  to  take  money 
from  his  more  honest  neighbor.  A  fixed  amount  of 
money  must  be  raised  by  taxation.  If  one  man  pays 
less  than  his  share,  his  neighbor  must  pay  more.  Our 
duty  is  not  to  protect  ourselves  directly  against  unjust 
laws  at  the  expense  of  our  neighbors,  but  to  suffer  with 
our  neighbors  until  we  can  secure  the  repeal  of  the 
unjust  laws. 

We  are  too  little  sensitive  regarding  these  matters 
that  really,  if  carefully  considered,  concern  our  per- 
sonal honor.  We  argue  that  the  law  is  unjust  and  op- 
pressive, but  shut  our  eyes  to  the  fact  that,  if  we  violate 
it,  we  become  unjust,  and  practically  plunder  our  more 
honest  neighbor.  And  we  forget,  as  has  been  implied, 
that  it  takes  energy  and  personal  interest  and  sacrifice 
of  time  and  often  of  temper  so  to  influence  legislation 
that  bad  laws  will  be  repealed.  Several  states  have  tried 
to  revise  their  unjust  tax  laws  at  various  times;  com- 
missions have  been  appointed  that  have  made  wise  re- 
ports ;  but  the  apathy  of  most  of  the  legislators  has  been 
outdone  by  the  prejudice  of  a  few,  and  the  laws  still 
remain.  If  but  for  one  year,  the  whole  body  of  our 
citizens  would  honestly  pay  their  personal  taxes,  be 
sure  the  wealthy  men  who  suffered  from  the  literal  ex- 
ecution of  the  bad  laws  would  secure  their  immediate 


THE  MAKING  OF  CITIZENS.  91 

repeal.  As  it  is,  many  of  them  prefer  to  pay  mucli 
less  than  their  just  share. 

In  the  common  affairs  of  local  politics  our  children 
should  be  taught  to  think  of  the  imperfections  of  our 
laws,  and  of  the  need  for  revision,  and  the  way  to  revise 
and  improve  them.  When  children  in  the  country  see 
the  men  who  are  presumably  working  for  the  town  in 
making  roads,  idling  their  time  away  in  the  fence 
corners  telling  stories  and  neglecting  their  duty,  it  is 
well  to  ask  them  why  such  cheating  of  the  government 
is  permitted.  Is  the  fault  in  the  men  or  in  the  laws; 
and  if  in  the  laws,  how  can  they  be  amended?  No 
better  practice  can  be  given  our  children  in  the  way  of 
training  them  for  good  citizens,  than  by  asking  them  to 
find  out  the  defects  in  existing  customs  and  laws,  and 
to  suggest  a  remedy.  They  may  not  get  a  good  one; 
it  is  well  for  them  to  think  about  it.  A  still  better 
practice  in  the  majority  of  cases  is  to  have  them  see  if 
the  fault  does  not  lie  in  the  non-enforcement  of  good 
laws,  and  if  so,  to  enquire  among  themselves  where  the 
blame  lies.  Is  it  in  the  citizens,  or  in  the  officers  ?  If 
in  the  citizens,  why  do  they  not  do  their  duties?  If 
the  officers  are  to  blame,  who  is  responsible?  What 
brought  these  men  into  power  ?  Any  practice  and  every 
practice  that  will  make  our  students  alive  to  the  im- 
portance of  seeing  the  practice  of  politics,  the  reasons 
for  our  shortcomings  in  political  affairs,  is  the  best  of 
training  for  citizenship. 

We  think  too  often  of  good  citizens  as  connected  with 
voting  and  making  laws,  and  not  enough  of  the  relations 
existing  between  the  different  citizens.     To  be  a  good 


92  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

citizen  in  the  full  sense  of  the  word,  a  man  must  be 
a  good  neighbor.  A  man  whom,  for  his  meanness,  his 
neighbors  hate,  is  not  a  good  citizen.  A  man  who  in  a 
country  town,  from  laziness  or  stinginess,  allows  in 
winter  his  sidewalks  to  remain  blocked  with  snow,  is 
not  a  good  citizen.  A  man  who  does  not  fairly  and 
freely  meet  the  calls  upon  his  pocket-book  for  purposes 
of  common  benefit  in  the  community,  is  not  a  good  citi- 
zen. How  often  come  the  calls  upon  us  for  public  pur- 
poses: celebrations,  parks,  libraries.  A  good  citizen 
should  be  ready  to  give  in  proportion  to  his  ability  for  all 
such  things  that  will  be  of  real  benefit  to  the  community. 
Americans  are  known  the  world  over  for  their  lavish 
expenditures,  for  the  carelessness  with  which  they  run 
into  debt,  and  for  the  readiness  with  which  they  take 
the  risk  of  pauperism.  Our  countrymen  do  not  lack 
energy ;  many  of  them  do  lack  thrift.  We  need  to  culti- 
vate the  spirit  of  saving  and  we  can  do  much  in  our 
schools  to  encourage  this  spirit  in  our  citizens.  In  many 
countries  in  Europe,  for  twenty  years  in  Belgium  and  a 
shorter  time  in  Italy,  Great  Britain,  Austria,  and 
France,  school  savings  banks  have  been  started,  to 
encourage  this  habit  in  children.  Some  slight  move- 
ment in  that  direction  has  been  made  in  our  own 
country,  a  movement  which  it  is  to  be  hoped  will  be  con- 
tinued. The  plan  of  organization  is  simple.  Each 
child  is  allowed  to  deposit  with  his  teacher  sums  from 
one  cent  upward,  receives  a  receipt  for  having  de- 
posited the  amount,  and  the  school,  as  a  school,  opens 
an  account  at  a  savings  bank.  As  soon  as  any  pupil 
has  deposited  a  fixed  sum,  say  $5.00  or  $1.00  he  is  given 


THE  MAKING  OF  CITIZENS,  9S 

a  personal  account  at  the  bank,  and  encouraged  to  in- 
crease his  savings  there,  his  pennies  being  received  at 
the  school.  The  child  receives  no  interest  till  he  be- 
comes an  independent  depositor  at  the  bank ;  the  interest 
drawn  by  the  scholars  as  a  whole  being  used  to  pay 
for  the  stationery,  and  if  a  surplus  remains  it  is  given 
in  rewards.  The  savings  of  a  few  children  of  thrifty 
parents  encourage  in  others  the  desire  for  an  account 
in  the  savings  bank ;  the  parents  become  interested,  and 
add  to  the  spare  pennies  of  the  children  their  own  small 
savings ;  until  the  little  bank  started  in  the  school-room 
leavens  the  whole  community,  and  thousands  of  dollars 
are  often  deposited  as  the  result  of  the  small  school 
savings  bank.  It  would  be  diflScult,  of  course,  to  estab- 
lish such  an  institution  in  many  country  places;  but 
in  any  city  where  a  savings  bank  is  near  at  hand,  and 
in  many  country  places,  if  the  parents  would  agree  to 
deposit  with  a  trustworthy  person,  institutions  of  this 
kind  might  be  safely  and  very  profitably  started. 

The  elements  of  the  best  citizenship  consist  in  having 
a  proper  spirit  toward  our  fellow  citizens,  and  nothing 
can  so  foster  this  spirit  as  a  willingness  to  sympathize 
with  him  in  joys,  and  to  help  him  in  times  of  misfortune 
and  sorrow.  Comparatively  little  has  been  done  in  the 
schools  of  our  country  to  encourage  in  children  the 
thought  that  they  are  their  brothers'  keepers ;  that  they 
are  responsible  for  the  sufferings  of  others  in  the  com- 
munity; and  that  it  is  not  merely  their  duty,  but  also 
one  of  their  highest  privileges,  to  minister  to  those  in 
need.  It  has  been  with  the  greatest  interest  and  with  a 
realizing  sense  of  the  helpfulness  of  the  movement  in  our 


94  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

social  problems,  that  I  have  learned  of  the  work  in  this 
direction  that  has  been  done  in  some  few  places.  When 
eager  boys,  with  axes  and  shovels,  go  to  bank  up  a  poor 
woman's  house,  and  protect  her  and  her  children  from 
the  cold,  the  benefit  received  by  them  is  far  greater  than 
any  they  can  give.  When  in  case  of  accident  that  brings 
destitution  to  some  family,  the  school  children  are  en- 
couraged to  feel  that  it  is  their  business  to  help  relieve  it, 
much  has  been  done.  When  this  spirit  of  care  for  their 
fellow  citizens  runs  throughout  the  whole  school,  and 
throughout  the  whole  community,  the  benefit  derived 
therefrom  is  incalculable.  Nothing  can  take  the  place 
of  such  work. 

It  is  well  to  consider  finally  how  we^can  carry  these 
measures  and  others  on  to  success.  Many  of  us  find 
that  we  cannot  do  so  well  as  we  know ;  that  our  children 
are  not  responsive  to  suggestions  made  by  us;  that  we 
can  teach  the  facts  and  principles,  but  that  we  cannot 
arouse  the  feelings,  the  desires  to  improve.  This  is  too 
true,  but  the  fault  lies  most  often  with  ourselves.  We 
forget  the  fact  that  the  teacher  and  pupil  must  meet  on 
common  ground,  that  there  is  no  education,  no  training, 
except  that  which  comes  from  personal  influence,  from 
the  touch  of  soul  with  soul.  I  have  been  more  and 
more,  of  late,  led  to  judge  of  the  spirit,  of  the  desire  for 
learning,  of  the  love  of  higher  culture  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher  by  the  number  of  his  pupils  who,  after  leaving 
his  school,  enter  higher  institutions  of  learning.  The 
test,  I  believe,  is  a  fair  one.  If  a  man  has  In  himself 
the  true  hunger  for  learning,  the  desire  to  find  out  more 
and  more  of  the  secrets  of  nature,  of  the  mind  and  of  the 


THE  MAKING  OF  CITIZENS,  95 

heart,  this  spirit  cannot  be  kept  within  himself.  It 
will  be  communicated  to  his  pupils,  and  the  result  will 
be  seen  in  their  after  life.  We,  as  teachers,  need  the 
true  interest  in  scholarship  that  is  not  a  transient 
curiosity,  but  an  abiding  longing  for  truth,  an  appetite 
that  grows  by  what  it  feeds  upon.  So  in  this  matter  of 
training  for  citizenship.  We  cannot  make  good  citizens  (/ 
of  our  pupils  until  we  are  ourselves  good  citizens.  We 
cannot  be  subservient  to  party  dictation  and  expect  our 
pupils  to  think  independently.  I  know  how  at  times 
our  teachers'  places  seem  to  depend  upon  subservience  to 
party  politicians ;  but  we  need  manhood  more  than  place. 
We  cannot  expect  our  pupils  to  be  saving  or  to  be  chari- 
table unless  we  take  the  lead,  and  show  them  the  way  to 
become  saving  and  charitable ;  and  we  cannot  give  them 
the  highest  ideals  of  the  state,  we  cannot  expect  them  to 
go  ahead  and  do  all  that  citizens  should  to  lift  our 
State  to  its  proper  level,  unless  we  ourselves  have  these 
highest  ideals,  and  strive  earnestly  to  reach  them;  but 
we  shall  succeed  whenever  we  ourselves  are  filled  with 
the  spirit  of  the  older  patriots,  whose  desire  was  to  build 
a  state  for  the  good  of  man  and  for  the  spread  of  cul- 
ture, wisdom,  and  righteousness  in  the  world. 


IV. 

THE  RELATION"  OF  THE  SCHOOLS  TO 
BUSINESS.* 

"  These  arts  open  great  gates  of  a  future,  promising  to  make 
the  world  plastic  and  to  lift  human  life  out  of  its  beggary  to 
a  godlike  ease  and  power." — Emerson. 

It  is  perhaps  natural  that  we  Americans  who  spend 
so  much  money  on  our  public  schools,  and  who  have  so 
much  pride  in  them,  should  feel  that  they,  if  rightly 
managed,  are  in  themselves  sufficient  to  cure  our  social 
ills.  Beyond  question  our  schools  have  done  much  to 
put  our  country  into  the  first  rank  politically  and  in- 
dustrially. Beyond  question,  too,  our  schools  may  be 
greatly  improved,  and  can  in  due  time  be  made  to  render 
still  greater  services  to  the  public.  But  it  seems  equally 
true  that  some  of  our  social  evils  are  of  a  nature  that 
our  schools  cannot  effect.  All  thoughtful  persons  will 
recognize  that,  inasmuch  as  many  of  the  ills  of  society 
come  from  the  continual  shifting  of  conditions  under 
which  our  people  live,  our  public  schools  can  never 
hope  to  meet  at  the  instant  even  the  demands  that 
may  properly  be  made  upon  them.  They  cannot  change 
their  methods  to  meet  new  demands  until  after  the  social 

♦Address  before  the  Merchants' Club,  Chicago,  Feb.  9,  1901; 
before  the  Liberal  Club,  Buffalo,  March  1,  1901. 

97 


98  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

changes,  which  make  these  demands,  have  first  become 
understood.  Before  undertaking,  therefore,  to  suggest 
what  more  our  present  schools  can  do  to  meet  present 
needs,  it  will  be  best  to  analyze  briefly  the  social  ills 
which  afflict  us,  in  order  to  see  whether  they  are  of  a 
nature  which  can  be  affected  by  our  school  training,  and 
how  far  we  must  look  to  other  agencies  for  their  cure. 

It  is  a  wise  plan  not  to  attack  all  social  evils  at  once, 
but  through  analysis  and  division  to  attack  them  one  by 
one  in  order  thus  more  easily  to  reach  practical  results. 

The  special  evils  which  we  are  to  consider  are  indus- 
trial, those  particularly  which  are  connected  with  the 
"  laboring  class,"  although  of  course  we  all  recognize 
that  in  this  country,  while  the  condition  of  manual 
laborers  may  be  less  fortunate,  their  labors  are  no  more 
severe  than  those  of  practically  every  other  class  in  the 
community.  The  labors  differ  in  kind,  but  the  break- 
downs from  overwork  are  as  frequent  among  those  that 
are  ordinarily  classed  elsewhere. 

CAUSES  OF  THE  WOEKMEN^S  FAILURES. 

The  failures  of  our  working  men  to  fit  themselves  at 
all  times  into  the  most  useful  positions  in  our  industrial 
society  are  due  partly  to  ignorance  or  faults  or  weak- 
nesses of  theirs,  partly  to  industrial  conditions  for  which 
none  of  them  are  in  any  way  responsible.  The  schools 
can  perhaps  do  some  few  things  to  aid  directly  in  over- 
coming the  first  class  of  difficulties.  Their  aid  in  the 
second  class,  which  has  to  do  with  panics,  new  inven- 
tions, new  forms  of  industrial  organization,  wars  and 
the  rumors  of  wars,  can  be  only  indirect  and  remote. 


THE  RELATION  OF  THE  SCHOOLS  TO  BUSINESS,   99 

The  lack  of  efficiency  of  the  workman  may  be  spoken 
of  most  conveniently  perhaps  under  four  heads:  first, 
his  lack  of  knowledge;  second,  the  unfitness  of  his 
knowledge  for  his  special  task ;  third,  his  lack  of  what  I 
may  perhaps  venture  to  call  industrial  character ;  fourth, 
his  failure  to  recognize  his  social  obligations.  In  this 
last  point  especially  all  classes  of  society  alike  come 
short. 

IGNORANCE. 

Unpleasant  as  the  thought  may  be,  we  must  all  recog- 
nize the  unquestioned  fact  that  throughout  all  stages  of 
the  world's  civilization,  the  vast  majority  of  men  have 
been  merely  the  hewers  of  wood  and  the  drawers  of 
water,  engaged  mainly  in  the  simplest  forms  of  unskilled 
labor,  and  a  very  large  proportion  of  them,  as  it  has 
seemed,  unfit  for  anything  else.  Many  of  the  world's 
great  thinkers  from  Plato  and  Aristotle  to  present  day 
writers  on  industrial  questions  have  been  ready  to  as- 
sume that  this  state  of  affairs,  which  has  always  existed, 
must  continue.  The  Greeks  justified  slavery  on  this 
ground,  that  the  unfit  were  natural  slaves  and  that  they 
must  work  to  secure  for  the  thinkers,  the  philosophers, 
the  leisure  needed  to  work  out  plans  for  the  advancement 
of  society.  Beyond  question  for  a  long  time  to  come  a 
very  large  proportion  of  our  working  people  will  be  en- 
gaged in  unskilled  manual  labor,  but  no  one  who  is 
awake  to  the  vast  industrial  changes  of  the  last  century 
can  fail  to  see  that  even  this  unskilled  labor  has  largely 
changed  its  character ;  that  very  many  things  which  were 
formerly  done  by  the  brute  power  of  the  naked  hand 


100  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

are  to-day  done  by  the  power  of  steam  or  electricity,  and 
we  may  well  look  forward  to  the  further  emancipation  of 
the  unskilled  laborer  by  the  enslavement  of  the  forces 
of  nature.  Again,  no  employer  of  labor  fails  to  recog- 
nize the  fact  that  among  untrained  laborers,  when  com- 
pared man  with  man,  one  is  often  doubly  as  efficient  as 
another.  Lord  Brassey,  the  great  English  contractor, 
who  built  railways  in  practically  every  quarter  of  the 
globe,  has  asserted  that  three  English  navvies,  whose  sole 
work  was  shovelling  and  wheeling  dirt,  were  equal  to 
five  Frenchmen  or  to  seven  East  Indians.  Was  the 
difference  muscular,  or  a  difference  in  skill  requiring 
greater  knowledge  on  the  part  of  some,  or  a  difference  in 
character  showing  greater  willingness  and  zeal  on  the 
part  of  the  efficient  ?  Every  employer  of  unskilled  labor 
notes  similar  differences  among  his  workmen.  What 
can  our  public  schools  do  to  remove  the  inefficient  from 
this  class  ? 

MISPLACED  KNOWLEDGE. 

A  very  large  proportion  of  our  industrial  ills  as  well 
as  other  social  evils  come  from  maladjustment  of  our 
social  relations.  Most  of  our  social  reformers  have, 
in  my  judgment,  laid  undue  emphasis  upon  the  faults 
of  individuals.  While  these  faults  cannot  be  ignored, 
it  must  still  be  recognized  that  a  very  large  proportion, 
possibly  even  the  largest  proportion  of  our  social  ills,  are 
not  to  be  ascribed  to  the  faults  or  weaknesses  of  indi- 
viduals, but  rather  to  misfits  for  which  no  one  is  to 
blame. 

Allusion  is  often  made  to  the  ill  fortune  that  befell 


TBE  RELATION  OF  THE  SCHOOLS  TO  BUSINESS.  101 

the  English  weavers  when  the  power  loom  drove  the 
hand  worker  from  his  cottage  to  the  factory  or  deprived 
him  entirely  of  employment.  In  our  own  country  in 
the  great  crisis  of  1837,  many  a  farmer  and  workman, 
through  no  fault  of  his  own,  lost  his  all  in  the  failure  of 
some  trusted  banker  and  had  his  wages  taken  away  by 
payment  in  bank-notes  soon  to  become  worthless,  while 
even  in  the  time  of  our  Civil  War  the  depreciation  of 
our  currency  caused  wide-spread  panic  which  ruined 
many,  to  be  followed  later  by  a  rise  in  the  value  of 
money  which  doubled  debts  and  stripped  farmers  of 
their  lands  through  mortgage  foreclosures.  Such  suf- 
ferers are  not  themselves  at  fault;  what  is  needed  is 
some  device  to  adjust  quickly  and  economically  the  in- 
dustrial machinery  that  has  been  thrown  for  the  time 
being  out  of  gear  by  new  inventions  or  business  changes 
from  whatever  cause.  Such  evils  are  always  with  us 
and  must  always  be  with  us  so  long  as  economic  society 
is  to  improve.  The  travelling  salesmen,  the  printers  of 
advertisements,  all  classes  of  workmen  in  poorly  situated 
mills  who  have  been  thrown  out  of  employment  during 
the  last  five  years  by  the  new  industrial  combinations, 
have  suffered  not  so  much  from  lack  of  skill  as  from  the 
fact  that  they  were  victims,  through  no  fault  of  their 
own,  of  the  progressive  spirit,  united,  to  be  sure,  at 
times  in  individual  instances,  with  the  ruthless  spirit  of 
the  present  industrial  age. 

Our  interstate  commerce  law  is  a  comparatively  new 
thing.  It  was  demanded  by  modem  conditions  and  was 
not  adaptable  to  the  conditions  that  preceded  it.  Many 
of  the  decisions  of  our  courts  that  reach  back  to  Queen 


102  CITIZENSHIP  AND   THE  SCHOOLS, 

Elizabeth's  time  for  some  of  their  precedents,  can  be 
fitted  to  present  cases  only  by  the  abounding  imagina- 
tion of  our  gifted  judges ;  and  that,  alas,  too  often  fails. 
So  it  is  that  the  law  will  always  be  somewhat  behind  the 
times,  and  will  never  be  quite  suited  to  industrial  condi- 
tions. 

The  same  thing  is  true  regarding  our  religion.  How 
many  persons  are  there  who  believe  as  their  fathers  and 
mothers  did  ?  How  many  in  middle  life  stay  by  the  old 
beliefs  ?  The  man  has  gone  forward,  or  the  church  has 
gone  beyond  him  while  he  has  stayed  behind.  His  be- 
liefs are  a  misfit  and  he  is  made  unhappy,  his  parents 
and  friends  are  made  unhappy,  because  he  cannot  be- 
lieve as  he  did  before,  or  because  they  have  abandoned 
their  childhood's  faith. 

So  in  social  life  everywhere.  Many  a  person  who  has 
come  an  eager,  popular  young  man  from  the  country 
into  the  city,  goes  back  after  ten  years  to  find  himself 
out  of  place.  He  is  uncomfortable  in  his  old  surround- 
ings, and  makes  everybody  else  uncomfortable  that  he 
comes  in  contact  with.  He  is  not  to  blame,  but  the 
conditions  are  changing;  his  principles  and  habits  and 
ways  of  thinking  are  misfits  and  are  out  of  date ; — ^per- 
haps I  had  better  say,  to  tickle  the  feelings  of  the  city 
men,  ahead  of  date. 

Legal  institutions,  political  institutions,  religious  in- 
stitutions, all  are  subject  to  the  same  implacable  law  of 
progress  under  which  not  only  workmen  but  employers, 
legislators,  every  individual  with  a  conscience,  unless 
he  can  rapidly  adjust  his  step  to  the  swift  march  of 
progress,  must  suffer.    Can  our  schools  do  anything  be- 


THE  RELATION  OF  THE  SCHOOLS  TO  BUSINESS.  103 

sides  giving  mere  special  knowledge,  to  give  also  this 
swift  adaptability  to  new  conditions  which  will  enable 
all  of  our  industrial  classes  to  avoid  in  part  the  evils 
inevitably  associated  with  progress,  and  to  give  to  all 
a  tolerance  that  will  remove  much  of  the  social  curse  ? 
It  is  perhaps  worth  while  to  note  that  some  of  these 
evils,  grave  as  they  are  to-day,  are  still,  relatively  speak- 
ing, far  less  than  they  were  at  the  beginning  of  the  19th 
century.  A  skilled  workman  of  fifty  years  ago  was  a 
man  who  understood  the  entire  process  of  making  a  boot 
or  shoe,  or  he  was  an  iron  and  steel  worker  of  such  train- 
ing that  he  could  do  everything  from  shoeing  a  horse  or 
ironing  a  wagon,  to  tempering  a  carving  knife  or  mend- 
ing a  lady's  bracelet.  The  skilled  workman  of  to-day,  in 
many  cases,  can  run  one  machine  which  makes  a  twen- 
tieth part  of  a  boot  or  which  hammers  out  the  calks  of 
a  horseshoe,  or  which  polishes  a  needle.  His  training 
has  made  him  less  adaptable  than  was  the  skilled  work- 
man of  fifty  years  ago  to  be  sure,  but  on  the  other  hand, 
the  skill  of  the  early  workman  was  the  result  of  a  train- 
ing of  years.  A  new  trade  of  the  modern  type  can  often 
be  learned  in  a  week. 

CHARACTER. 

Bad  as  is  this  industrial  inertia  this  difficulty  in 
changing  our  calling  at  will,  that  puts  us  at  odds  witH 
our  environment,  a  more  important  evil  is  one  of  char- 
acter. Possibly  the  gravest  weakness  among  workmen, 
certainly  the  fault  that  is  most  annoying  to  the  em- 
ployer, is  one  which  seems  to  be  merely  a  lack  of  fore- 
sight or  thoughtfulness  or  faithfulness,  as  one  is  pleased 


104  CITIZENSHIP  ANI>  THE  SCHOOLS. 

to  consider  it.  Many  workmen  are  careless  of  their 
tools  or  are  wasteful  of  their  material,  or  apparently 
have  a  fear  that  they  may  earn  rather  more  than  the 
wages  agreed  upon.  One  often  remarks  the  eager 
promptness  with  which  work  stops  at  the  noon  whistle, — 
the  pick  left  hanging  in  the  air,  as  the  wit  puts  it — as 
compared  with  the  slower  motion  with  which  work  be- 
gins after  the  luncheon  hour.  One  notes  at  times  the 
scrupulous  care  with  which  a  workman  stops  short  of 
exceeding  the  task  assigned,  and  the  pressure  even  that 
is  brought  to  bear  by  many  workmen  upon  their  fellows, 
whose  normal  gait  or  motion  is  quick  enough  to  increase 
materially  the  amount  of  their  product. 

I  recall  very  well  a  friend  of  mine  telling  me  about 
a  cousin  that  came  into  the  business  as  a  boy  to  take  the 
lowest  place.  He  called  him  into  the  office  and  said: 
"  John,  to-day  you  are  my  cousin ;  to-morrow  you  will 
be  a  workman.  I  am  only  one  of  the  partners  here.  I 
cannot  show  you  any  favors.  I  cannot  recommend 
you  for  promotion.  I  shall  do  nothing  for  you,  but  be- 
fore you  go  to  work  I  w^ant  to  give  you  some  advice. 
Don't  be  afraid  to  earn  more  than  your  wages.  Do  all 
you  can  to  benefit  the  firm  and  trust  to  the  future  to 
give  you  your  reward."  The  result  of  that  advice  was 
that  the  boy  was  in  a  very  few  years  in  a  prominent 
position  in  the  business,  by  all  odds  the  most  successful 
boy  of  all.     He  had  caught  the  right  spirit. 

But,  on  the  other  side,  there  is  perhaps  no  less  to 
criticise.  iN'ot  merely  the  workingmen  are  afraid  they 
will  do  too  much,  the  employers  frequently  are  afraid 
that  they  will  be  overreached  by  the  workingmen  and 


THE  RELATION  OF  THE  SCHOOLS  TO  BUSINESS.  105 

will  give  too  much ;  tliey,  too,  are  often  not  ready  to  give 
quite  as  much  as  they  get  in  return. 

ISTow,  on  both  sides,  this  reaching  out  for  more  than 
they  ought  to  have,  this  unwillingness  to  do  more  than 
the  task  put  upon  them  is  a  fault  of  character ;  and  in 
my  judgment  it  is  one  of  the  most  serious  faults  of  our 
industrial  life.  The  workman,  on  the  one  hand,  who 
completely  overcomes  this  fault,  who  is  ready  for  the 
time  being  to  render  more  than  is  due  from  him,  thus 
showing  his  spirit  of  willingness  and  generosity,  is  the 
one  whose  wages  rise,  who  is  promptly  promoted,  who 
soon  becomes  an  employer  himself.  The  employer, 
again,  who  shows  like  generosity  combined,  to  be  sure, 
with  rigid  care  and  exactness  in  watching  delinquents  is 
the  one  who  secures  the  best  of  the  workmen,  and  in  the 
long  run  secures  the  most  willing  service,  a  result  which 
comes  equally  to  his  financial  advantage.  But  these  de- 
fects are  all  important  in  industrial  society,  and  ought 
to  be  overcome.  What  can  our  public  schools  do  to 
remedy  this  evil  ? 

SOCIAL  OBLIGATIONS. 

The  fourth  mistake,  or  fault,  is  this :  Speaking  gen- 
erally, we  all  fail  to  recognize  our  social  obligations. 
Business  men  fail  to  realize  their  relations  to  one  an- 
other and  their  relations  to  society.  A  butcher  in  busi- 
ness sells  meat  to  his  neighbors ;  he  wants  his  profit ;  in 
nine  cases  out  of  ten,  although  of  course  he  knows  it,  he 
does  not  realize  the  fact  that  he  is  also  rendering  a 
great  service  to  society,  and  that  if  he  fails  to  keep  his 
shop  clean,  or  to  sell  meat  that  is  healthful,  he  is  doing 


106  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

a  grave  injury  to  society.  He  is  in  business  for  money 
making.  He  ought  to  realize  also  that  he  is  in  business 
to  render  service  to  society;  he  ought  to  undertake  his 
business  for  that  purpose.  So  also  with  reference  to 
men  in  any  other  line  of  work.  A  merchant,  a  manu- 
facturer, a  business  man  of  any  kind,  cannot  cut  him- 
self loose  from  his  social  obligations.  If ine  men  out  of 
ten  think  they  do  so.  They  are  in  business  for  the  sake 
of  their  profits.  This  is  natural,  but  at  the  same  time 
they  will  render  much  better  service,  and  probably  with- 
out lessening  their  profits  if  they  will  keep  the  social 
obligation  also  in  mind. 

We  ought,  all  of  us,  to  recognize  much  more  than  we 
do  the  complexity  of  our  industrial  life,  and  how  closely 
we  are  bound  one  to  another.  Think,  for  example,  of 
the  food  that  we  have,  the  clothes  that  we  wear,  every 
object  that  we  use, — how  many  people  have  contributed 
their  service  in  order  that  we  might  have  these  bits  of 
enjoyment,  these  items  of  service.  Many  of  these 
things  have  come  from  across  the  sea.  Workingmen 
have  been  toiling  on  the  other  side,  and  mechanics,  ship- 
builders, sailors,  by  the  hundreds,  by  the  thousands,  have 
been  at  work  in  order  that  some  little  thing  might  be 
brought  here  to  us.  There  is  not  a  day  passes,  but 
that  if  we  analyze  to  the  bottom  the  production  of  any  of 
the  goods  that  we  use,  we  shall  find  that  thousands  of 
men  have  been  working  for  each  one  of  us ;  and,  if  we 
have  paid  our  debts  in  the  honest  way  in  which  we 
ought,  we  shall  have  rendered  a  return  service  and  we 
shall  thus  have  served  in  our  turn  thousands  of  men. 
Now,  this  social  solidarity,  this  relationship  of  one  man 


THE  RELATION  OF  THE  SCHOOLS  TO  BUSINESS.  107 

in  the  community  to  another,  the  inter-action  and  inter- 
relation of  all  business  enterprises,  is  not  sufficiently 
recognized  by  the  workingmen,  or  by  business  men ;  but 
it  ought  to  be  so  recognized,  and  it  must  be,  before  we 
can  have  comforts  in  society  as  general  as  they  might 
be. 

These  are  the  faults  that  I  wished  to  speak  of,  which 
we  find  continually.  Can  our  public  schools  do  any- 
thing regarding  them  so  that  social  conditions  will  be 
improved  ?  What  do  our  public  schools  do  now  to  pre- 
pare workingmen  better  for  life  ? 

KNOWLEDGE  AND   SKILL. 

Speaking  generally,  it  is  probably  no  exaggeration  to 
say  that  our  schools  give  to  the  average  workingman 
(and  that  expression  means  probably  nine  out  of  ten  of 
all  our  people)  no  skill  in  handling  tools  that  is  of  any 
service,  very  little  new  power  of  judging  form  or  dis- 
tance or  color  that  is  of  practical  use,  though  much  more 
is  done  now  than  twenty  years  ago. 

A  certain  amount  of  useful  information  of  a  general 
nature,  such  as  ability  to  read,  to  add,  to  divide,  is  given 
the  child,  together  with  much  useless  information  along 
the  same  line  regarding  obsolete  forms  of  bank  discount, 
complicated  methods  of  reckoning  partial  payments  and 
so  on,  which  he  will  never  use.  To  one  who  is  to  be  a 
clerk  or  a  salesman  this  information  is  of  some  slight 
service.  On  the  other  hand,  to  these  and  all  persons  a 
little  knowledge  of  elementary  geography  and  of  history, 
possibly  of  drawing,  is  useful.  What  is  perhaps  most 
useful  of  all  in  very  many  cases,  even  though  the  pupils 


108  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

leave  the  schools  before  thej  have  reached  the  grammar 
grades,  is  a  fairly  satisfactory  use  of  the  English  lan- 
guage which  will  enable  those  who  are  ambitious  or  those 
who  have  the  opportunity  thereafter  to  associate  with 
well  educated  people  to  pass  for  persons  with  much  bet- 
ter education  than  they  in  fact  have.  This  knowledge  of 
English  is,  to  be  sure,  very  scanty,  and  in  many  cases 
it  is  not  given;  but  in  spite  of  the  many  faults  of  our 
school  systems,  it  is  surprising  that  so  much  is  done  to 
enable  even  our  poorest  children,  coming  from  homes 
where  everything  is  against  them  in  this  regard,  to  speak 
and  even  to  write  with  a  reasonable  degree  of  accuracy 
the  English  tongue.  I  am  not  overlooking  the  just 
criticisms  of  our  professors  who  inveigh  against  our 
teaching  of  English.  Doubtless  humorous  illustrations 
of  "  English  as  she  is  spoke  "  are  plentiful,  but  still  it 
is  probable  that  the  greatest  service  rendered  by  our 
schools  is  in  making  readers.  They  give  some  useful 
knowledge. 

Take  the  second  point :  Do  our  public  schools  do  any- 
thing to  protect  people  from  the  effects  of  the  misfit 
knowledge  of  which  I  have  spoken?  People  need  adapt- 
ability. If  a  man  loses  one  job  he  wants  to  be  ready 
enough  and  prompt  enough  and  with  knowledge  enough 
to  turn  his  attention  in  another  direction.  This  adapt- 
ability, too,  must  be  not  merely  a  matter  of  technical 
knowledge,  it  must  be  a  matter  also  of  willingness,  be- 
cause very  many  of  our  workingmen,  when  out  of  work, 
fail  to  take  another  job,  because  they  are  too  proud  to  do 
so,  thinking  it  beneath  them  to  change  their  calling.  I 
recall  a  wagon-maker,  thrown  out  of  his  trade  some  years 


THE  RELATION  OF  THE  SCHOOLS  TO  BUSLXESS.  109 

ago  for  the  whole  winter.  There  were  plenty  of  oppor- 
tunities for  him  to  make  a  dollar  or  a  dollar  and  a  half, 
sometimes  even  two  dollars  a  day  by  shoveling  snow  or 
doing  other  unskilled  work,  but  he  was  utterly  unwill- 
ing to  do  anything  of  that  kind ;  he  would  make  wagons, 
he  would  do  nothing  else;  and,  in  consequence,  his 
daughter  supported  him  during  the  winter,  in  good  part. 
IN'ow,  our  public  schools  can  do  something  more,  in  my 
judg-ment,  to  take  away  from  the  great  mass  of  people 
that  spirit  of  unwillingness  to  do  anything  except  in  one 
specific  trade. 

Third,  do  our  schools  develop  character  and  a  sense  of 
responsibility  ?  They  do  something  along  that  most  im- 
portant line.  Our  public  schools  are,  on  the  whole, 
better  than  any  other  force  in  the  community  in  train- 
ing character, — better  than  the  churches;  they  have  a 
better  opportunity — better  in  most  cases  than  the  homes. 
They  do  far  more  than  any  other  influence  to  teach  the 
children  punctuality  and  neatness  and  the  accomplish- 
ment of  any  certain  task  placed  upon  them. 

Those  things  our  schools  do ;  and  we  must  not  under- 
rate the  importance  of  the  service.  But  there  is  still  a 
failure.  These  habits  are,  so  to  speak,  imposed  upon 
the  children  from  the  outside.  The  children  are  on 
time  at  school  because  they  are  afraid  to  be  late.  Punc- 
tuality is  not  and  does  not  become  spontaneous.  In 
order  that  a  man  may  be  skilled  in  business,  he  must  not 
only  do  what  he  is  told,  but  he  must  seek  and  see  his 
tasks  of  himself,  willingly.  He  must  be  spontaneous. 
Our  schools  are  not  doing  much  to  develop  that  power. 

So  with  reference  to  the  fourth  point,  the  feeling  of 


110  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS.  i 

social  responsibility.     Speaking  generally,  are  we  not  ' 
taught  in  our  schools  that  the  individual  pupil  is  to  be 

developed  for  his  own  sake  ?     In  most  of  our  teachers'  j 

gatherings   that   is   certainly   the   thought   that   I   see  ■ 

brought  forward  most  often.     ''  Teach  this ;  teach  it  in  ; 

this  way ;  do  this  thing  in  the  schools,  in  order  that  the  \ 

individual  may  be  developed ;"  and  the  other  side  of  the  j 

matter,  that  he  should  be  developed  for  the  sake  of  j 
society,  on  account  of  the  relationship  that  he  has  with 

others,    is   very   frequently   ignored.     In   our   schools  i 

generally  we  find  that  our  teachers  have  not  themselves  ; 
this  consciousness  of  social  inter-action,  social  solidarity 

that  they  ought  to  have  and  that  they  ought  to  put  into  j 

their  pupils'  minds  and  hearts.     Some  little  is  done;  i 

much  more  might  be  done.  : 

In  all  these  particulars  the  good  work  now  done  by  the  ! 

public  schools  is  strictly  limited  by  the  fact  that  so  large  i 
a  proportion  of  the  pupils  leave  the  schools  before  they 

reach  the  grammar  grades,  before  their  habits  of  work  \ 

are  well  formed,  and  before  knowledge  or  skill  can  to  ■ 

any  material  extent  be  given,  or  habits  of  character  be  ' 

firmly  fixed.     Little   or  nothing  is  done  to  give  the  ! 

flexibility  of  disposition,  the  ready  adaptability  of  mind  j 

and  body  to  new  conditions  and  new  tasks  which  are  ; 

becoming  more  and  more  needed  under  modem  indus-  ] 

trial  conditions.  ! 

1 

THE  TASKS  FOR  THE  SCHOOL.  ^ 

The  problems  for  the  school  to  solve  seem  then  to  be 

these:     First,  how  can  our  schools  be  made  more  at-  ] 
tractive  to  pupils  so  that  they  will  be  willing  to  submit 


THE  RELATION  OF  THE  SCHOOLS  TO  BUSINESS,  m 

themselves  longer  to  their  good  influences,  and  how  can 
thej  be  made  to  appear  to  the  parents  to  be  more  useful 
so  that  they  will  compel  their  children  to  remain  some 
years  longer  ?  Second,  how  can  the  work  be  so  changed 
as  to  give  (a)  greater  skill  to  our  workingmen,  and  more 
knowledge  that  will  be  useful  in  business  life,  (b) 
greater  adaptability  to  changing  circumstances,  (c) 
faithfulness  to  duty  with  the  power  of  spontaneous 
self-direction  which  will  make  them  both  faithful  to 
tasks  that  are  put  upon  them  and  ready  to  rely  more 
upon  themselves  in  meeting  the  problems  of  life  which 
are  given  them  to  solve,  (d)  the  realization  of  social 
responsibility  ? 

In  addition  to  our  compulsory  education  laws,  in 
order  to  make  the  schools  more  attractive  both  to  the 
children  and  the  parents,  we  must  make  them  in  seeming 
\  and  in  reality  take  hold  on  life.  Character  and  service 
are,  to  be  sure,  the  highest  things  in  life.  The  develop- 
ment of  a  noble  character  is  the  greatest  need  for  each 
individual,  and  to  give  it,  the  greatest  service  that  any 
school  can  render.  But  we  must  not  overlook  the  fact 
that,  speaking  generally,  it  is  not  the  development  of 
high  character  that  very  many  parents  feel  the  need  of 
in  their  children;  it  is  rather  the  development  of  the 
money-making  power.  Neither,  again,  do  the  children 
feel  that  their  characters  need  development.  They  wish 
to  be  interested. 

Let  us  begin  with  facts  and  take  note  of  actual  condi- 
tions. All  of  us,  of  course,  as  time  passes,  gradually 
work  toward  our  ideals.  In  order  to  hold  the  children 
in  our  schools,  we  must  recognize  what  the  ideals  of 


112  CmZENSBIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

the  school  children  and  of  the  parents  really  are.  Where 
these  ideals  are  not  the  highest,  we  must  endeavor  to  im- 
prove them ;  but  our  first  practical  task  is  to  learn  those 
ideals,  so  that  we  can  hold  the  children.  The  problem  is 
quite  like  that  of  the  newspaper  editor  who  has  for  his 
purpose  something  higher  and  nobler  than  mere  money 
making.  He  wishes  to  influence  public  opinion  in  favor 
of  that  which  is  best  for  the  state,  but  public  opinion 
cannot  be  influenced  by  his  paper  unless  some  one  will 
read  it.  It  is  useless  to  have  a  paper  fashioned  to  an 
ideal,  however  noble  it  may  be,  provided  the  paper  is  so 
dull  that  people  will  not  subscribe.  It  must,  therefore, 
be  made  attractive  as  well  as  wise. 

The  parents  naturally  want  prompt  results  from  the 
schools.  A  man  who  is  working  every  day,  all  day 
long,  in  order  that  he  may  get  enough  to  eat  for  himself 
and  family,  and  then  possibly  goes  hungry  part  of  the 
time,  is  likely  to  be  thinking  of  something  else  than 
character  development.  He  is  thinking  of  dinner.  I 
recall  very  well  a  dear  old  lady  friend  of  mine  who 
worked  all  day  long  and  half  the  night  caring  for  her 
household,  caring  for  her  children,  doing  her  duty  as  she 
saw  it  from  day  to  day,  and  I  have  heard  her  say,  time 
after  time,  "  Oh,  I'll  be  so  glad  when  I  get  to  Heaven, 
because  then  I  think  I  can  have  a  rest."  The  ideal  that 
she  had  before  her  was  rest ;  rest  was  the  greatest  happi- 
ness that  she  could  have  in  Heaven.  'Now,  when  a  per- 
son is  feeling  that  way,  he  is  not  likely  to  look  very  much 
higher  than  ordinary  physical  comforts.  And  so  I 
should  say,  speaking  generally,  that  the  parents  of  most 
of  the  children  in  our  public  schools  are  not  looking 


THE  RELATION  OF  THE  SCHOOLS  TO  BUSINESS,  113 

primarily  for  the  development  of  noble  characters  in 
their  children,  though,  of  course,  they  want  that  too. 
What  they  want  insistently  is  the  development  of  honest 
money-earning  power.  If  they  can  get  that,  they  will 
be  satisfied  with  our  public  schools,  and  if  they  can  feel 
that  our  public  schools  are  giving  that,  they  will  let 
their  children  stay ;  otherwise  not.  The  children  them- 
selves have,  to  a  very  great  extent,  as  we  all  know,  the 
same  feeling;  it  comes  from  the  same  source.  If  then 
we  speak  of  the  problem  of  doing  something  more  to 
develop  money-earning  power  in  order  to  hold  the  chil- 
dren in  the  schools  so  as  to  develop  them  in  the  best  way 
intellectually,  we  must  attack  that  problem  directly. 

MAlSrUAL  TRAINING. 

It  seems  probable  that  the  training  which  will,  on 
the  whole,  give  the  knowledge  that  will  be  best  appreci- 
ated by  those  who  are  called  the  working  men,  is  that 
which  will  fit  their  children  most  rapidly  for  their  ap- 
parent or  their  probable  needs  as  skilled  laborers;  i.  e. 
some  form  of  manual  training,  or,  in  its  simplest  form, 
the  ^^  constructive  work,''  as  it  has  been  called,  directed, 
as  far  as  possible,  so  as  to  fit  for  the  child's  life  work. 
Speaking  generally  too,  this  form  of  work  interests 
children.  They  like  the  concrete ;  they  like  to  do  things. 
Many  children  who  show  little  interest  in  arithmetic  or 
reading  for  its  own  sake,  are  delighted  to  make  things 
which  may  either  serve  as  toys,  or  which  at  any  rate 
serve  to  keep  them  busy  in  the  way  that  interests  them. 

The  parents  are  much  more  ready  to  recognize  the 
value  of  this  kind  of  training  when  the  child  shows 


114  CITIZENSHIP  AND   THE  SCHOOLS. 

himself  able  to  use  some  of  the  knowledge  gained  at 
school.  If  a  boj  can  repair  his  mother's  lock,  he  does 
something  practical  that  tells.  If  a  girl  learning  to 
cook  can  suggest  some  meal  at  home  that  costs  less  and 
tastes  better  than  the  ordinary  meal,  her  parents  will 
appreciate  that  dinner,  and  they  will  want  her  to  stay 
to  learn  something  more.  Any  one  who  has  had  ex- 
perience in  these  lines  knows  that  those  results  do  fol- 
low, and  they  also  enable  both  parent  and  child  to  take 
a  look  ahead  to  money-earning  capacity  in  the  future. 

To  secure  the  best  results  in  awakening  this  interest 
of  course  requires  greater  skill  on  the  part  of  the  teacher, 
a  point  which  is  to  be  considered  later;  but  how  great 
the  need  is  of  this  training  in  the  larger  part  of  the 
homes  whence  come  the  poorer  children,  cannot  be  ques- 
tioned. The  cost  of  living  in  the  poorest  way  is  often  as 
great  as  that  of  living  much  better,  if  a  little  trained 
knowledge  can  be  put  at  the  service  of  the  home. 

Some  years  since  I  happened  to  learn  accidentally  of  a 
colored  barber  with  a  wife  and  two  children,  who,  on  his 
wages  of  from  ten  to  twelve  dollars  a  week,  had  never 
known  what  it  was  to  have  $50  ahead.  His  attention 
was  called  to  the  fact  that  a  teacher  in  the  same  town, 
with  a  salary  of  about  $150  a  month,  with  a  family  of 
the  same  size,  was  spending  for  his  table  much  less 
than  was  spent  by  the  barber.  Some  careful  question- 
ing on  the  part  of  the  barber  as  to  methods  of  buying 
provisions  and  preparing  them,  led,  as  he  afterwards 
expressed  it,  to  the  saving  of  ^^  dollars  and  dollars  a 
week,"  while  he  lived  better  than  ever  before.  Every 
person  who  has  lived  among  the  people  with  the  least 


THE  RELATION  OF  THE  SCHOOLS  TO  BUSINESS,  US 

income  knows  that  not  merely  is  their  poverty  their 
curse,  inasmuch  as  it  compels  them  to  buy  in  too  small 
quantities,  but  perhaps  to  an  even  greater  degree  is  their 
ignorance  and  their  thriftlessness  their  curse.  A  teacher 
who  is  willing  to  put  into  the  work  of  the  cooking  classes 
also  some  careful  information  regarding  buying  and 
preparing,  and  who  can  tactfully  also  see  to  it  that  the 
instruction  is  made  real,  so  that  it  takes  hold  of  the  chil- 
dren under  her  charge,  can  make  both  parents  and 
children  feel  that  such  training  may  well  be  carried  on 
for  a  considerable  time. 

For  purposes  of  thorough  training  which  shall  be 
applicable  to  all  the  different  children  who  are  likely 
to  come  into  the  school  and  which  can  serve  also  as  a 
basis  for  scientific  and  literary  training  as  well,  and 
which  still  further  will  give  the  adaptability  of  mind  and 
skill  which  has  been  spoken  of  as  one  of  the  greatest  of 
our  social  needs,  probably  the  plan  followed  in  the 
newer  training  schools  is,  on  the  whole,  for  the  present, 
wisest,  though  any  course  must  be  adapted  to  local  needs 
by  taking  subjects  which  connect  most  directly  with  local 
social  and  business  conditions.  It  is  certainly  logically 
and  pedagogically  sound  to  take  for  example  the  textile 
industry  and  carry  it  through  its  various  stages  of  de- 
velopment. Into  the  children's  hands  are  placed  some 
of  the  raw  materials  like  wool  or  the  bolls  of  cotton. 
They  are  led  to  examine  the  fibers,  and  are  asked  to 
find  out  for  themselves  the  way  these  fibers  can  be  made 
into  strings  of  yarn;  next,  they  invent  the  simplest 
forms  of  spinning,  and  then  from  that  are  shown  the 
more  modern  devices  arid  machines  for  spinning  thread 


IIG  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

and  yams  of  different  sizes.  From  the  examination  of  a 
piece  of  cloth  they  learn  the  way  in  which  the  yarn  is 
woven  into  cloth  or  knitted  into  garments.  They  them- 
selves under  guidance  invent  the  simplest  form  of  loom, 
and  from  that  they  are  led  to  see  the  improvements  made 
in  the  looms  of  the  higher  type  from  the  earlier  days  to 
the  present.  Thus,  step  by  step,  they  trace  the  whole 
history  of  the  development  of  that  industry  from  the 
days  of  savagery  to  those  of  the  highest  civilization. 
They  have  themselves  worked  through  the  whole  history 
of  the  race,  and  in  that  way  have  acquired  an  idea  of 
what  civilization  means  as  compared  with  barbarism 
such  as  perhaps  could  have  been  learned  in  no  other  way. 
So,  too,  besides  the  acquirement  of  manual  skill,  the  idea 
of  development  and  progress  in  society,  and  the  funda- 
mental conceptions  in  anthropology  which  they  uncon- 
sciously have  acquired,  they  have  learned  likewise  to  see 
the  geographical  connection  that  exists  between  the  prod- 
ucts in  their  different  stages  of  development.  They 
trace  the  product  from  country  to  country,  acquiring 
thus  some  insight  into  commercial  processes  in  the 
manipulation  of  the  products  themselves;  they  learn 
some  of  the  simplest  elements  of  physics,  and  in  other 
allied  lines  of  work  the  simplest  elements  of  chemistry 
may  also  well  be  taught.  They  have  been  led  through 
not  merely  the  ideas  of  the  history  of  the  race,  but  they 
have  themselves  lived  through  a  good  part  of  the  life  of 
the  race. 

Better  than  this,  such  study  gives  the  consciousness 
of  industrial  solidarity  showing  the  interdependence  of 
the  classes  of  society  one  upon  another,  which,  after  all, 


THE  RELATION  OF  THE  SCHOOLS  TO  BUSINESS.  H^ 

is  the  most  appropriate  and  possibly  the  most  important 
lesson  that  any  of  them  can  learn.  I  have  often  said 
that  the  best  lesson  taught  in  the  shops  connected  with 
our  great  technical  schools  is  that  a  man  may  wear 
greasy  overalls  and  have  a  smutty  face  and  grimy  hands 
and  still  be  a  gentleman.  If  a  boy  has  himself  worked 
for  a  time  in  these  conditions,  he  judges  others  more 
accurately  ever  after. 

Such  training  fits  also  readily  into  reading  and  lan- 
guage work.  I  found  in  the  case  of  my  own  small  boy, 
that,  before  it  was  possible  to  get  him  interested  in  Rob- 
inson Cricsoe  or  fairy  stories  or  Tales  from  Ancient 
Greece,  he  was  lying  awake  nights  to  spell  out  almost 
word  by  word,  with  the  aid  of  the  pictures,  the  American 
Boys'  Handy  Book,  which  taught  him  how  to  make  boats 
and  kites.  Such  work  is  admirably  adapted  also  for 
written  description  and  discussion;  and  foreign  lan- 
guages when  read  for  their  ideas  regarding  a  subject  in 
which  one  is  especially  interested  are  studied  with  new 
zest. 

TRADE  SCHOOLS. 

This  kind  of  training  must  be  carefully  distinguished 
from  the  work  of  trade  schools.  These,  in  most  cases 
in  connection  with  the  public  school  system,  will  prob- 
ably not  be  found  practicable.  In  the  first  place,  they 
will  almost  certainly  meet  with  the  active  opposition 
of  the  trade  unions  and  an  attempt  to  introduce  them, 
instead  of  securing  the  interest  and  approval  of  many  of 
the  parents  and  of  the  children,  will  awaken  instead 
their  active  hostility.     Trade  unionists  complain,  and 


118  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

often  doubtless  with  much  justice,  that  the  result  of  a 
trade  school  training  is  that  employers  take  young  boys 
directly  from  the  trade  schools  at  boys'  wages  to  sup- 
plant trained  working  men  upon  whom  families  are 
dependent.  Something  of  course  may  be  said  in  defense 
of  this,  but  much  more  can  probably  be  said  against  the 
plan. 

The  trade  school,  if  carried  out  in  the  narrow  way 
which  its  name  would  seem  to  indicate,  will  give  to  the 
boy  the  ability  to  do  some  one  especial  thing,  which 
would  readily  enough  perhaps  enable  him  to  take  the 
place  of  an  older  and  more  skilled  workman.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  would  fail  to  give  him  the  general  deft- 
ness of  manipulation  and  variety  of  knowledge  which 
would  render  him  able  to  adapt  himself  not  merely  to 
one  trade,  but,  if  necessary,  to  any  one  of  half  a  dozen 
trades  in  case  he  were  to  be  forced  out  of  a  position  by 
the  vicissitudes  of  trade  and  manufacture. 

Our  great  polytechnic  schools,  which  are  suited  for 
training  superintendents  of  factories  of  various  kinds 
do  not  aim  to  teach  specific  trades,  but  instead  they  give 
the  fundamental  principles  that  underlie  all,  together 
with  the  rudiments  of  working  in  wood,  in  iron,  in  steel, 
in  the  foundry  and  the  machine  shop,  so  that  one  thus 
trained,  when  entering  directly  into  practical  manu- 
facturing work,  can  learn  in  a  year  the  work  of  a  factory 
or  a  machine  shop  better  than  one  without  such  prelimi- 
nary training  could  learn  it  in  ten  years.  The  scientific 
basis  which  is  necessary  for  all  of  the  most  skillful 
work  cannot  be  learned  in  the  machine  shop  itself.  It 
should  be  learned  beforehand.    In  the  same  way  in  our 


THE  RELATION  OF  THE  SCHOOLS  TO  BUSINESS.  119 

manual  training,  it  is  probably  not  desirable  to  teach 
specific  trades,  but  to  teach  rather  the  fundamental 
principles  underlying  them  all  with  sufficient  practice  in 
manipulation  so  that  one  can  later  turn  comparatively 
readily  from  one  of  our  modem  trades,  which  requires 
but  comparatively  short  training,  to  another. 

In  connection  with  the  kind  of  manual  training 
school  of  which  I  have  spoken,  comes  in  also  the  basis 
of  a  commercial  training.  If  a  boy  studies  the  various 
products  mentioned,  he  acquires  a  knowledge  of  goods 
of  various  kinds  from  food  products  and  textiles  to  iron 
and  machines,  which  will  enable  him  to  master  the  de- 
tails of  any  business  so  that  he  can  much  the  more 
readily  become  a  salesman  who  understands  his  work. 
Likewise,  there  will  come  with  this  a  knowledge  of  geog- 
raphy so  essential  to  commercial  life ;  the  principles  of 
exchange  would  normally  be  taught  before  this  work  in 
the  training  school  had  advanced  very  far ;  and  through- 
out the  whole  course  from  the  bottom  to  the  top,  habits 
of  order,  of  neatness,  the  necessity  of  accounting  for  the 
material  put  into  his  hands,  the  keeping  of  a  regu- 
lar account  with  his  teacher  for  everything  given  him 
and  everything  returned,  would  enable  him  to  catch 
the  commercial  instinct  in  such  a  way  that  he  could 
much  more  readily  enter  into  the  spirit  of  a  mercantile 
i)usiness  man  if  he  decided  to  turn  his  attention  in  that 
direction.  I  am  not  speaking  here,  of  course,  of  the 
special  commercial  high  school,  which  I  believe  also 
should  be  provided  for  in  any  complete  public  school 
system  of  a  large  city,  but  rather  of  the  elementary  work 
which  can  well  be  started  in  preparation  for  such  a  higK 


120  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

school  in  some  of  the  lower  grades  in  connection  with 
the  work  in  manual  training.  This  will  necessitate,  of 
course,  the  use  of  some  commercial  museum,  which  need 
not  necessarily  in  itself  be  large,  but  which  can  furnish 
a  number  and  variety  of  materials  suflBcient  to  give  the 
basis  for  the  kind  of  work  that  I  have  suggested. 

Some  years  ago  in  visiting  the  Commercial  Museum 
in  Philadelphia,  I  was  shown  a  series  of  exhibits  con- 
sisting of  a  number  of  the  more  common  kinds  of  com- 
mercial and  industrial  products  which  had  been  put  up 
in  boxes  to  be  distributed  to  the  various  schools  of  differ- 
ent grades  in  the  city,  in  order  that  the  children  might 
become  familiar  with  these  most  common  products  and 
might  make  use  of  them  in  connection  with  their  work 
in  geography  and  history. 

If  our  schools  are  to  be  conducted  with  particular 
reference  to  making  them  take  hold  on  life,  the  only 
difference  in  the  process  suggested  from  the  present  one 
would  be  that  we  should  reverse  the  usual  order,  and 
starting  with  the  materials  and  with  their  connection 
with  our  everyday  life,  we  should  go  out  from  them  to 
the  studies  of  geography,  history,  mathematics  and  ac- 
counting. Now  we  take  our  studies  first;  we  get  our 
practical  connection  with  our  materials  after  our  school 
days  are  over. 

After  all,  as  intimated  before,  knowledge,  or  even 
adaptability  and  skill  are  not  the  chief  thing  that  is 
needed.  Above  all  the  chief  want  in  our  working  men, 
as  well  as  the  chief  want  in  our  society  everywhere,  is 
the  proper  spirit.  The  willingness  to  adapt  one's  self 
to  new  conditions,  the  readiness  to  overcome  the  mental 


THE  RELATION  OF  THE  SCHOOLS  TO  BUSINESS.  121 

and  even  the  moral  inertia  under  which  so  many  of  us 
remain  permanently  stagnant  in  life,  is  what  should  be 
developed,  together  with  the  feeling  that  we  are  all  parts 
of  a  great  social  whole  in  which  each  must  render  service 
to  his  fellows. 

I  find  that  the  students  whom  I  recommend  to  busi- 
ness  positions  or  to  teachers'  positions  with  the  greatest 
freedom  and  lack  of  reserve  are  those  students  who  have 
been  compelled  to  earn  their  way  through  the  Uni- 
versity. They  have  taken  hold  on  life.  In  many  cases 
they  have  no  better  brains,  are  not  better  students  than 
are  the  others;  but,  generally  speaking,  they  have  been 
compelled  to  put  their  pride  imder  their  feet,  to  wait 
on  their  fellow  students  at  table,  to  take  care  of  fur- 
naces, to  mow  lawns,  to  do  other  drudgery  before  the 
eyes  of  their  fellow  students  and  teachers,  and  have  thus 
shown  their  readiness  to  do  the  best  that  they  can.  They 
have  manifested  a  spirit  of  independence  and  self-re- 
spect that  shows  their  determination  to  stand  by  them- 
selves, if  need  be,  for  their  own  opinions,  to  carry  out 
their  own  purposes  and  to  do  every  duty  under  all 
circumstances.  The  refusal  of  laboring  men  to  adapt 
themselves  to  new  conditions  from  fear  of  the  opinion 
of  their  fellow  working  men,  or  from  a  foolish  pride 
which  hinders  them  from  stooping  to  tasks  that  require 
less  skill  than  does  their  own  trade  may  perhaps  be 
justified  at  times.  There  is  not  a  little  force  in  the 
argument  that  one  may  become  permanently  classified 
with  the  less  skilled  laborers;  but  nevertheless  it  is 
usually  true  that  this  argument  does  not  hold,  and  that 
the  spirit  of  willingness  to  make  the  best  of  a  situation, 


122  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS, 

coupled  with  the  spirit  of  thrift,  would  much  sooner 
put  them  into  a  position  of  independence  and  of  influ- 
ence among  their  fellow-working  men  and  elsewhere 
than  would  any  other  influence.  This  spirit  of  inde- 
pendence and  willingness  to  do  one's  duty  however  un- 
pleasant that  maj^  be,  is  something  that  also  is  perhaps 
more  likely  to  be  worked  out  through  our  schools  that 
are  attempting  by  manual  training  to  take  direct  hold  on 
life  than  through  those  that  are  more  formal  in  their 
training. 

It  is  not  necessary,  in  order  to  develop  the  powers  of 
our  pupils  best,  to  give  them  any  specific  line  of  train- 
ing. We  can  develop  intellectual  qualities  and  moral 
qualities  just  as  well  in  a  technical  school  as  we  can  in 
a  Latin  school.  We  should  make  our  schools  take  hold 
on  life  as  it  is.  We  do  have  to  make  our  living.  We 
have  all  of  us  various  desires  to  satisfy,  but  first  we  must 
satisfy  our  desire  to  eat.  If  we  do  not,  we  shall  soon  not 
be  in  a  condition  to  have  any  further  desires  in  this 
world.  We  should  not  make  getting  a  living  the  final 
purpose  of  our  lives  by  any  means,  but  that  is  one  prom- 
inent thing  that  should  be  brought  forward. 

Again,  how  shall  we  lead  the  different  classes  in  so- 
ciety to  live  in  unison  and  harmony  and  to  work  together, 
unless  we  train  all  of  our  citizens  so  that  they  will  recog- 
nize their  social  relations  ?  We  speak  frequently  of  the 
strife  that  exists  between  the  different  classes  in  society. 
How  shall  we  get  rid  of  it  ?  Is  it  not  by  putting  the  chil- 
dren together  into  the  schools,  and  letting  them  realize 
there  what  the  different  conditions  in  life  are,  and  what 
interdependence  there  is  between  the  different  classes  in 
society,  until  they  can  meet  one  another  on  an  even 


THE  RELATION  OF  THE  SCHOOLS  TO  BUSINESS.  123 

plane?  A  man  is  not  better  because  he  is  rich,  but 
neither  is  he  any  better  because  he  is  poor,  as  a  great 
many  people  seem  to  think.  A  person's  goodness  or 
badness  depends  upon  what  he  does,  upon  his  ideals, 
upon  the  use  that  he  makes  of  the  powers  that  God  has 
given  him,  and  not  upon  his  social  status. 
^  In  speaking  of  manual  training  and  of  commercial 
training,  I  trust  that  I  have  not  been  thought  to  over- 
look the  fact  that  some  at  any  rate  of  our  children  in 
the  schools  need  another  line  of  training.  They  are  to 
devote  themselves  hereafter  to  professional  work,  to 
literature,  to  law,  to  teaching,  to  languages.  One  must 
be  careful  not  to  overlook  them,  but  at  the  present  time 
the  need  is  probably  chiefly  for  training  along  technical 
lines.  In  my  own  judgment,  the  best  work  in  literature 
and  in  history  can  well  be  fitted  in  to  the  manual  cur- 
riculum of  which  I  have  already  spoken.  As  one  gets 
toward  the  higher  grades  of  work,  foreign  languages 
should  of  course  begin  for  those  who  are  likely  to  finish 
their  high  school  course  or  to  go  on  later  into  college  life. 
But  the  kind  of  training  would  be  different.  One  would 
be  taught  primarily  to  speak  and  write  with  reference 
to  business,  not  to  literary  culture.  The  beginning  of 
foreign  language  work  for  those  who  wished  it  would  be 
naturally  too  in  French  or  Spanish  or  German.  As  our 
markets  expand  into  foreign  countries,  there  is  becoming 
continually  felt  a  much  greater  need  for  salesmen  and 
agents  in  foreign  countries  who  can  speak  there  the  lan- 
guage of  the  natives.  Probably  the  chief  advantage 
which  Germany  has  had  over  England  and  the  United 
States  in  her  foreign  trade  of  the  last  few  years,  has 


124  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS.  - 

come  from  the  fact  that  through  her  commercial  schools,  | 

often  merely  of  elementary  grade,  although  many  of  : 

them  of  course  are  likewise  commercial  high  schools  | 

connected  with  commercial  museums,  have  been  trained  i 
men  who  could  carry  goods  into  foreign  countries  and 

in  the  language  of  that  country  explain  their  advantages  \[ 

to  prospective  purchasers.  i 

i 

i 

ADAPTATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  CUERICULUM. 

The  directly  practical  question  for  our  schools  is  ; 
WTiere  is  the  time  to  undertake  this  work?    The  curri- 
culum is  crowded  now.     The  changes  must  be  made  < 
gradually,  but  we  may  indicate  the  way.    So  far  as  prac- 
tical work  is  concerned,  we  do  much  useless  work  now.  : 
In  our  work  in  arithmetic,  for  example,  our  children 
spend  much  time  in  learning  tables  that  are  rarely  used  ■ 
thereafter,  and  that  whenever  they  would  be  needed  later  j 
in  life  could  be  picked  up  by  any  average  man  in  a  very  I 
few  minutes  when  he  saw  the  practical  need  of  it.    How  : 
many  of  us  can  tell  now  offhand  the  number  of  yards  in  I 
a  perch  or  the  scruples  in  a  dram  ?    How  would  it  bene-  ; 
fit  us  if  we  could  ?    Many  of  our  school  problems  are  i 
those  that  were  customary  fifty  years  ago  and  are  solved  j 
in  the  same  way ;  but  such  means  are  no  longer  employed  i 
by  our  bankers  or  business  men.    The  retention  of  such  : 
processes   is  often   defended  on  the  ground  that  the 
mental  training  is  good.    Doubtless  this  is  true,  but  the  \ 
other  training  that  takes  its  closer  hold  on  life  is  no 
less  valuable  and  is  certainly  much  more  attractive.  ■ 
Our  business  men  have  found  methods  now  that  are  ■ 


THE  RELATION  OF  THE  SCHOOLS  TO  BUSINESS.  125 

much  briefer  than  those  employed  fifty  years  ago.  The 
specific  training  that  comes  from  one  business  act  done 
by  the  new  method  is  perhaps  not  so  great  as  that  from  a 
like  act  under  earlier  conditions ;  but  where  the  business 
man  did  one  job  then  he  does  twenty  now,  and  the  ac- 
cumulated force  of  the  twenty  acts  is  doubtless  greater 
than  that  of  the  one.  A  friend  of  mine  in  New  York 
was  found  one  day  in  his  office  with  long  distance  tele- 
phones connected  with  Washington  and  Chicago  selling 
a  steamship  by  telephone.  It  was  not  the  old  way,  but 
it  was   effective.      We   should   seek   for  the   practical 

/  methods.  As  a  teacher  I  may  be  justified  in  saying  that 
the  fact  that  these  older  forms  are  so  generally  retained 
is  probably  due  chiefly  to  the  mental  inertia  of  the 
teachers  and  the  writers  of  text-books.     Originality  is 

•  rare  in  this  world ;  it  is  much  easier  to  get  one  or  two 
or  a  few  new  ideas,  take  an  old  book  and  adapt  it  with 
these  new  ideas,  than  to  attempt  to  see  just  how  much 
can  be  thrown  away  and  how  much  that  is  directly  prac- 
tical can  be  put  in. 

CHARACTER. 

In  all  this  work,  of  course,  there  would  be  exactness, 
promptness  in  attendance  required,  as  is  the  case  in  all 
our  schools  now.  Best  of  all  there  would  be  a  better 
opportunity  in  a  training  school  for  the  exercise  of  that 
most  important  of  all  business  characteristics,  judgment 
and  impartiality, — the  habit  of  seeing  things  as  they  are 
and  in  their  uses,  whether  they  are  immediately  in  favor 
of  the  doer  or  against  him.  The  business  man  should  see 
things  as  his  chief  competitor  sees  them;  the  lawyer 


126  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

needs  to  see  his  opponent's  side  as  well  as  his  own.  This 
habit  of  impartiality,  like  the  habit  of  honesty  and  of 
willingness  to  adapt  one's  self  to  conditions  is,  after  all, 
something  that  is  much  more  likely  to  be  caught  uncon- 
sciously and  indirectly  from  the  teacher  than  in  any 
other  way.  This  is  the  fact  with  all  character  training. 
If  we  stop  to  think  of  the  effect  upon  ourselves  that  has 
been  made  by  our  teachers  in  schools,  in  college,  or,  if 
not  limiting  ourselves  to  the  schools,  we  go  outside  and 
ask  what  the  influences  are  that  have  shaped  our  mental 
habits  most,  we  shall  find  that  the  chief  influence  has 
been  some  other  person.  The  truest  education,  after  all, 
is,  in  my  judgment,  the  influence  of  a  riper,  a  nobler,  a 
higher,  a  better  nature  upon  one  weaker  or  less  mature. 
We  must  then  look  after  our  teachers,  and  if  our  teachers  \ 
themselves  are  persons  that  have  the  spirit  of  faithful- 
ness and  impartiality  of  which  I  have  spoken,  our  chil- 
dren will  get  it.  We  are  to  be  congratulated  upon  the 
fact  that,  speaking  generally,  our  teachers  do  have  the 
spirit  of  faithfulness  and  of  devotion  to  their  work,  ^ 
and  at  times  impartiality ;  but  if  they  had  it  to  a  greater 
degree,  which  means  if  we  were  to  get  people  of  a  higher 
type  for  our  teachers  than  we  have  now,  we  should  have 
a  stronger  influence  upon  our  children  than  we  have 
now.  Do  not  our  children  of  the  public  schools — those 
of  you  who  have  children  can  judge  whether  I  am  right 
or  not — do  not  they  at  times  come  home  and,  instead 
of  feeling  that  their  teachers  are  higher  and  better  and 
nobler  than  they  are — people  whom  they  would  be  glad 
to  imitate —  do  they  not  rather  make  fun  of  them, 
thinking  that  one  is  small  and  tricky  and  that  another  is 


\ 


THE  RELATION  OF  THE  SCHOOLS  TO  BUSINESS,  127 

trying  to  make  them  do  something  because  she  wants  to 
escape  some  labor  ? 

If  I  were  speaking  to  teachers  I  should  go  more  into 
detail  with  reference  to  the  personal  characteristics  of 
teachers.  But  I  am  speaking  to  the  people  who  pay  the 
teachers.  And  that  brings  the  matter  up  from  another 
point  of  view :  why  is  it  that  we  do  not  have  better  teach- 
ers in  our  public  schools  ?  If  you  go  to  teachers'  gather- 
ings, you  will  find  that  the  chief  complaint  of  superin- 
tendents is  this :  that  our  teachers  are  the  same  unskilled 
craftsmen  that  I  have  been  speaking  about  in  connection 
with  business  life.  The  great  mass  of  our  teachers — 
perhaps  that  is  putting  it  too  strong ;  very,  very  many  of 
our  teachers  are  the  unskilled  craftsmen  who  are  not 
able  to  exert  the  influence  that  they  ought  to  exert  in 
the  way  of  uplifting  the  pupils  and  giving  them  the 
sense  of  social  responsibility.  They  have  not  the  knowl- 
edge ;  in  many  cases  they  have  not  the  strength  of  char- 
acter ;  they  have  no  adaptability  to  fit  themselves  to  the 
conditions  in  which  they  work.  They  cannot  recognize 
the  differences  in  the  individual  characteristics  of  their 
pupils  and  in  that  way  seize  the  opportunity  to  develop 
their  pupils  as  they  ought.  I^ow,  why  do  we  have 
teachers  of  that  kind  ?  Simply  because  we  are  unwill- 
ing to  pay  more.  Often  the  difference  of  ten  dollars  a 
month  would  make  all  of  the  difference  between  an  un- 
skilled, ignorant,  incompetent  teacher  and  a  thoroughly- 
trained  one  who  could  put  into  the  pupils  the  social  and 
faithful  spirit  needed. 

But  there  is  also  another  side  to  the  question:  we 
ought  to  have  our  children  fitted  for  industrial  life, 


128  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

because  we  all  live  in  our  business  first,  and  we  live  in 
the  higher  interests  afterwards.  Nine  out  of  ten  of  our 
waking  thoughts  are  given  to  business;  the  tenth  is 
given  to  these  higher  things  that  we  set  before  us  as  our 
ideals.  That  is  going  to  be  true  with  our  children  just 
as  much  as  it  is  with  us,  and  under  those  circumstances 
we  ought  to  see  to  it  that  they  get  business  training  in 
the  highest  and  best  way.  It  will  in  no  way  hinder  the 
planting  of  ideals.  But  whom  do  we  appoint  to  train 
our  children  in  business  ?  As  a  rule,  unmarried  women 
who  have  had  practically  no  experience  in  business. 
Now,  to  avoid  misunderstanding,  I  should  like  to  say 
that  the  best  teachers  that  I  know  are  women ;  I  think 
women,  as  a  rule,  are  as  able  and  as  good  and  as  skillful 
teachers  as  the  men  are.  But  I  still  contend  that,  if  we 
are  to  give  our  children  an  all-around  business  training, 
if  we  are  to  give  them  the  right  idea  of  business  life,  if 
we  are  to  start  our  schools  on  the  basis  of  our  daily  life 
and  work  outward,  we  should  have  our  schools  some- 
thing like  the  life  outside  the  schoolroom.  Outside,  our 
workers  are  half  men  and  half  women,  speaking 
roundly ;  in  our  schools  let  us  have  the  same  proportion. 
Let  us  have  the  best  women  kept;  we  certainly  could 
not  do  better ;  let  the  places  of  the  others  be  taken  by  men 
as  skillful  as  the  best  women  whom  we  keep.  This  plan 
will  cost  a  great  deal  more  money,  but  it  will  be  bringing 
our  schools  much  closer  to  the  kind  of  life  that  we  want 
to  train  our  children  for.  The  reason  why,  to  a  consider-  / 
able  extent,  our  schools  have  failed  in  practical  training, 
is  because  we  have  been  unwilling  to  pay  to  keep  men 


THE  RELATION  OF  THE  SCHOOLS  TO  BUSINESS,  129 

in  the  public  schools.    The  women  are  there ;  we  can  get 
them  cheaper. 

PATIEI^CE  REQUIRED. 

Ultimately  we  can  make  great  changes  in  our  public 
schools  and  in  the  influence  of  our  public  schools  upon 
our  children's  lives ;  but  we  cannot  hope  to  accomplish 
very  much  at  once.  In  the  first  place,  we  must  find  our 
teachers  and  we  must  train  them ;  in  the  second  place,  we 
must  convince  our  people  that  our  plan  is  the  right  one ; 
in  the  third  place,  we  must  wotk  out  any  problem  of  that 
kind  through  a  series  of  experiments.  It  will  take  time, 
but  the  essential  idea  is  right  and  the  problem  must  be 
worked  out  in  that  way.  Eventually  we  shall  be  able  to 
make  very  great  improvements. 

Again  we  must  not  think  that  we  can  accomplish  too 
much.  The  schools  can  do  a  great  deal,  but  the  schools 
cannot  furnish  brains;  and  very  many  people  are  not 
people  of  great  intellectual  ability.  Nevertheless,  every 
one  can  be  improved,  and  our  educational  and  social 
conditions  may  be  made  vastly  better  than  they  are  now, 
by  careful  training  from  the  beginning,  although  we 
cannot  hope  for  too  great  results. 

I  was  reading  lately  a  brief  statement  made  by  Booker 
T.  Washington,  with  reference  to  his  school  for  negroes 
at  Tuskegee.  In  my  judgment  no  other  man  in  the 
United  States  to-day  is  doing  so  great  a  work  in  educa- 
tion, speaking  generally,  as  is  Booker  Washington.  In 
closing  his  autobiographical  sketch  he  ^ave  the  aims 
of  his  Institute,  and  told  what  he  was  trying  to  do  for  the 
young  men  and  young  women  who  study  at  Tuskegee. 


130  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

"  In  the  first  place,"  he  said  (I  am  not  quoting  his  words 
literally),  "  we  try  to  teach  our  pupils  to  take  the  prob- 
lems of  life  that  they  meet  now,  and  to  solve  them ;  we 
wish  them  to  learn  to  do  the  world's  work  as  it  comes  to 
them,  now ;  in  the  second  place,  we  try  to  teach  every  one 
of  them  to  learn  how,  by  means  of  his  knowledge  and  his 
character,  to  support  himself  and  others;  and  in  the 
third  place,  we  try  to  make  every  one  of  them  feel  that 
work  is  something  that  is  noble  and  beautiful,  and  we  try 
to  instill  into  each  of  them  a  love  of  work  and  not  a  de- 
sire to  avoid  it."  The  result  of  these  efforts  has  been 
that  most  of  the  pupils  who  have  left  there,  he  said,  have 
shown  that  they  have  common  sense  and  self-control.  So 
far  as  I  can  see,  the  Tuskegee  Institute  is  taking  up  this 
educational  problem  in  the  way  that  I  have  had  in  mind 
in  this  discussion.  Mr.  Washington  is  taking  the  life  of 
to-day  as  he  finds  it  in  the  South,  and  he  is  fitting  his 
pupils  for  it  by  direct  industrial  training,  as  the  central 
thought,  with  all  of  the  other  culture  influences  possible 
brought  in  to  support  that,  to  aid  it  and  carry  it  out ;  and 
he  is  bringing  into  their  minds  the  idea  of  the  social 
relationships  that  exist  between  the  different  people  in 
the  South,  whites  and  blacks  alike,  and  he  makes  them 
feel  that  they  are  all  one  great  society. 

When,  later  on,  we  can  get  into  our  public  schools  all 
our  children  and  can  give  them  all  a  sense  of  the  need 
for  helpfulness,  and  a  desire  to  serve  others ;  and  then 
can  make  them  feel  also  that  they  have  the  capabilities 
for  self-direction,  we  shall  have  gone  a  long  way  toward 
preparing  our  pupils  for  the  greater  and  better  state  that 
we  all  wish  to  see. 


Y. 

EDUCATION  FOR  COMMEEOE:  THE  FAR 
EAST.* 

**  Confucius  was  once  keeper  of  stores,  and  he  then  said,  *  My 
calculations  must  all  be  right.  That  is  all  I  have  to  care  about.* 
He  was  once  in  charge  of  the  public  fields,  and  he  then  said, 
*  The  oxen  and  the  sheep  must  be  fat  and  strong  and  superior. 
That  is  all  I  have  to  care  about.* "— Mencius. 

The  discussion  of  Education  for  Business  has  been  so 
ably  carried  on  along  general  lines  either  by  men  im- 
mediately engaged  in  directing  such  education  in  schools 
and  colleges,  or  by  those  doing  business,  that  in  speaking 
of  the  subject  in  its  rather  limited  application  to  the  com- 
mercial problems  of  the  Ear  East  it  has  seemed  best  for 
me  to  take  the  position,  not  of  a  business  man,  nor  of 
a  teacher,  but  of  an  economist  who  has  had  some  interest 
in  the  study  of  Ear  Eastern  conditions,  and  from  that 
view-point  to  comment  upon  some  principles  of  busi- 
ness that  are  well-known,  to  be  sure,  but  often  over- 
looked in  current  discussion.  We  should  note  the  con- 
ditions to  be  met  before  deciding  the  educational 
problem.  It  must  be  kept  in  mind  that  the  work  of  the 
economist  is  simply  to  investigate  and  to  state  the  prin- 
ciples of  actual  business.     There  is  no  true  economic 

*  Address  at  the  University  Convocation,  Albany,  July,  29, 
1905.    North  American  Review,  October,  1905. 

131 


132  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

science  that  is  not  based  upon  actual  business,  and  there  : 
can  be  no  sound  business  education  that  does  not  rest  ! 
upon  study  of  business  conditions.     Each  new  set  of 
conditions  makes  a  new  problem. 

It  will  be  assumed  also  as  fundamental  that  business  i 

j 

is  a  complicated  subject  requiring  intelligence  and  train-  : 

ing  to  understand  it  thoroughly  and  ability  often  of  a  ! 
very  high  order  to  conduct  it  successfully  on  any  large 
scale.    The  needed  training  must  be  gained  in  good  part 

in  actual  touch  with  business  itself ;  but  the  training  in  i 

a  business  house  may  doubtless  be  shortened  and  like-  i 

wise  made  broader  and  better  suited  to  modem  opera-  ; 

tions  on  a  world-wide  scale  by  preliminary  study  in  \ 

special  schools  and  colleges  adapted  to  that  end.     How  ! 

practical  some  of  this  training  may  be,  is  shown  by  the  j 

fact  that,  according  to  late  investigations,  over  30  per  i 

cent,  of  the  exporting  establishments  of  Great  Britain  ; 

now  have  in  their  employ  Germans  especially  trained  in  j 

the  great  commercial  schools  of  Germany,  and  that  the  : 

number  of  such  trained  employees  is  rapidly  increasing.  I 

Great  Britain  has  not  yet  provided  schools  to  meet  her  1 

own  needs. 

i 

NATURE  OF  COMMEECE. 

The  subject  of  commerce  includes,  of  course,  retail  : 

and  wholesale  trade  on  the  one  hand,  and  local,  national,  ; 

and  foreign  trade  on  the  other.     Each  one  of  these  di-  j 

visions  has  its  own  problems  and  its  own  methods,  and  ; 

to  a  considerable  extent  the  training  for  each  must  be  | 

special.     ITaturally  some  fundamental  principles,  those  | 

of  accounting,  for  example,  are  similar  in  all.     It  is  | 


EDUCATION  FOR  COMMERCE:    THE  FAR  EAST.   133 

necessary  in  every  case  that  the  business  be  so  analyzed 
and  understood  that  the  reckoning  of  costs,  and  the  de- 
termination of  profits  and  losses  can  b^  made  clear ;  and 
in  many  other  ways  the  lines  of  business  will  be  found 
similar,  whatever  their  scope.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
methods  of  purchase  and  sale  of  the  retailer  of  necessity 
differ  decidedly  from  those  of  the  wholesaler.  His 
methods  of  advertising,  his  systems  of  credit,  his  per- 
centages of  profit,  his  knowledge  of  markets,  his  whole 
range  of  information  and  activity  must  be  vastly  dif- 
ferent. Likewise  the  person  who  buys  and  sells  locally, 
whose  transportation  of  goods  is  limited  by  the  delivery 
wagon,  has  problems  quite  different  from  those  of  the 
man  whose  business  is  largely  a  mail  order  or  express 
business  if  he  is  a  retailer,  or  whose  range  of  sales  is 
national  if  he  is  a  wholesaler.  Still  a  new  and  entirely 
different  set  of  problems  come  up  for  the  merchant  whose 
business  is  international  in  its  scope.  Not  merely  has  he 
many  of  the  same  problems  that  have  perplexed  the  other 
merchants  mentioned,  but  in  addition  come  the  problems 
of  tariffs  in  both  the  countries  of  purchase  and  of  sale, 
the  questions  of  international  exchange  of  moneys  af- 
fected both  by  the  character  and  quality  of  the  moneys 
themselves  and  by  the  relative  demand  of  each  country 
for  the  goods  of  foreign  countries  as  compared  with  the 
supply  of  its  own  goods  which  it  ships  abroad.  In  many 
instances,  also,  aside  from  the  more  narrowly  business 
questions,  there  enter  into  commercial  transactions  on 
a  large  scale  questions  of  politics  which  cannot  be 
ignored  if  one's  business  is  to  be  successful ;  and  again 
the  question  of  national  politics  in  the  one  instance  may 


134  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS, 

easily  broaden  into  one  of  international  politics  in  the 
other.  The  merchant  in  Chicago  may  find  his  busi- 
ness considerably  hampered  by  the  teamsters'  strike 
and  may  find  that  this  question  is  complicated  by  re- 
lations which  may  arise  with  the  city  government,  the 
state  government,  or  even  the  federal  government ;  but  if 
his  dealings  are  with  the  Far  East,  he  may  find  that  a 
shipment  of  machinery  destined  for  Tientsin  in  Xorth 
China  has  been  carried  off  to  Eussian  Vladivostock,  as 
in  one  case  which  I  knew,  because  the  ship  happened  to 
carry  also  contraband  of  war  for  the  Japanese,  and  the 
Russians  captured  it. 

GENERAL   TRAINING  FOR   COMMERCE. 

In  current  discussions,  in  the  press  and  elsewhere, 
many  of  the  more  fundamental  principles  of  commerce 
and  the  training  which  is  requisite  in  order  to  enable  our 
young  men  to  cope  with  the  problems  which  may  arise 
in  their  business,  have  been  adequately  considered.  It 
is  generally  conceded  that  besides  the  principles  of  ac- 
counting and  cost  keeping  referred  to,  one  should  pos- 
sess a  fair  knowledge  of  foreign  exchange,  a  compre- 
hensive outlook  over  the  most  important  markets  for  the 
purchase  and  sale  of  leading  staple  products,  a  reason- 
able understanding  of  shipping  by  water  and  rail  routes, 
and  the  relative  costs  of  different  routes  and  classes  of 
freights,  an  insight  into  the  fundamental  principles  of 
commercial  law,  a  sufficient  knowledge  of  the  languages 
of  the  countries  in  which  one  is  to  work,  besides 
a  detailed  knowledge  of  the  goods  to  be  handled 
and  the  special  requirements  of  the  individual  business, 


EDUCATION  FOR  COMMERCE:    THE  FAR  EAST.   135 

which  can  be  learned,  of  course,  only  in  the  business 
itself.  I  may  assume,  therefore,  that  these  general  prin- 
ciples are  accepted  and  carried  into  effect,  and  I  will 
simply  answer  further  questions  as  to  the  peculiarities 
of  commerce  in  the  Far  East  which  will  require  certain 
special  training  to  be  added  to  the  general  training  thus 
outlined.    Among  the  questions  comes 

THE  PROBLEM  OF  THE  BALANCE  OF  TRADE. 

In  most  of  the  late  discussions  on  the  trade  of  the 
United  States  with  the  Orient,  there  has  been  emphatic 
insistence  upon  the  necessity  of  our  "  extending  our 
markets  into  the  Orient,"  of  our  finding  a  field  in  which 
we  may  '^  dispose  of  the  surplus  of  our  manufactures." 
We  have  been  repeatedly  assured  that  if  we  are  to  be- 
come a  great  world  power,  it  is  necessary  that  we  reach 
out  and  capture  these  Oriental  markets  for  our  goods 
as  far  as  possible  in  advance  of  our  rivals.  Rel- 
atively very  little  has  been  said  about  the  possibility  of 
our  finding  in  the  Orient  opportunities  for  purchases 
which  may  satisfy  our  own  needs;  and  I  have  even 
found  persons  who  have  been  speaking  and  writing 
upon  these  questions  somewhat  embarrassed  when  they 
were  asked  what  the  Americans  proposed  to  accept  in  re- 
turn for  the  goods  which  they  wished  to  sell  in  the 
Orient.  It  seems  to  have  been  thoughtlessly  assumed 
either  that  we  might  be  willing  to  sell  to  the  Orient  with- 
out securing  a  fair  equivalent  in  return,  or,  what  is 
much  more  likely,  that  the  Oriental  country  to  which  we 
might  sell  would  have  an  unlimited  supply  of  cash  with 
which  to  pay  for  our  goods.    If,  however,  we  are  contin- 


136  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

uallj  to  expand  our  sales,  there  must  be  a  corresponding 
expansion  of  the  power  of  production  in  the  Orient  of 
those  goods  which  the  West  may  be  willing  to  take  in 
exchange.  To  take  China  for  an  illustration.  For  many 
years  in  the  past  China  has  paid  for  a  large  proportion 
of  the  goods  which  she  has  imported  from  foreign  coun- 
tries by  the  export  of  silk  and  tea,  though  of  late  other 
shipments  are  relatively  increasing.  It  is  a  fair  question 
whether  foreign  countries,  if  they  double  or  triple  their 
sales  to  China  are  going  to  be  willing  to  take  twice  or 
three  times  as  much  silk  and  tea  in  exchange  at  prices 
which  will  be  substantially  the  same  as  those  at  present ; 
or  whether  they  will  take  more  products  of  other  kinds 
from  China.  If  China  has  not  now  sufficient  acceptable 
means  of  payment,  will  foreigners  be  willing  to  take  an 
active  part  by  investing  capital  to  develop  certain  new 
industries  and  added  wealth  there  which  will  enable  that 
country  to  supply  foreign  needs  more  readily  in  order  to 
meet  her  increasing  demands  for  foreign  goods  ?  We  too 
often  overlook  the  fundamental  principle  that  in  the 
long  run  a  country  must  pay  for  what  she  buys,  and  that, 
speaking  generally,  she  must  pay  for  the  goods  which 
she  purchases  by  goods  which  she  sells. 

Of  course,  in  certain  instances,  if  a  country  is  a  credi- 
tor country,  as  is  England,  she  may  purchase  goods  with 
the  interest  due  on  the  bonds  or  stocks  which  she  owns  of 
a  debtor  country ;  or  if  she  has  a  great  merchant  marine, 
she  may  pay  by  the  freights  which  foreign  countries  owe 
her  citizens  for  transportation ;  or,  if,  as  in  the  case  of 
China,  many  of  her  citizens  go  abroad  to  labor,  she  may 
pay,  in  part,  for  the  goods  which  she  buys  by  the  labor  of 


EDUCATION  FOB  COMMERCE:    THE  FAR  EAST.   137 

her  citizens  working  in  the  foreign  country.  In  other 
ways  also  payments  may  be  made ;  but  in  whatever  way 
we  explain  the  matter  as  regards  details,  it  is  still  clear 
that  the  citizens  of  a  country,  by  their  labor  or  by  their 
capital,  must  in  some  way  pay  for  the  goods  which  that 
country  buys.  They  cannot  increase  their  purchases  un- 
less they  also  increase  their  sales,  although  of  course  it  is 
not  necessary  that  their  exports  go  directly  to  the  coun- 
tries from  which  their  imports  come. 

An  apparent  exception  to  this  general  principle 
should,  however,  be  made  in  the  discussion  of  the  exten- 
sion of  our  commerce  with  the  Far  East.  At  the  present 
time,  China  is  much  in  need  of  railways,  of  iron  bridges, 
of  foreign  machinery  of  various  kinds.  If  our  citizens 
have  capital  to  invest  in  China  and  put  that  capital  into 
the  form  of  railway  material  or  manufacturing  es- 
tablishments, it  is  probable  that  these  American  owners 
of  the  capital  thus  invested  may  be  willing  to  let  their 
capital  stay  in  China  and  to  draw  on  that  capital  for 
use  at  home  only  the  dividends  on  their  investments. 
Indeed,  in  special  cases  investors  might  well  be  willing 
practically  to  transfer  their  capital  to  China  and  to  re- 
invest their  profits  there,  making  that  for  the  time  being 
the  home  of  their  capital,  if  not  their  own  personal 
home.  To  that  extent  there  might  be  a  selling  of  certain 
classes  of  goods  to  China  for  which  for  an  indefinite 
period  there  would  be  no  return  demanded  in  the  form 
of  exported  goods.  The  pay  might  be  taken  in  only  a 
claim  to  wealth  there.  This  would  constitute  probably 
the  only  exception  to  the  general  principle  laid  down 
above.    There  is  so  much  popular  misconception  on  this 


138  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS, 

subject  that  it  is  proper  to  emphasize  here  in  connection 
with  the  subject  of  commercial  extension  this  funda- 
mental principle  of  foreign  exchange  which  would  not 
be  thought  of  in  connection  with  local  retail  trade  or 
national  exchange. 

OTJR  FAR   EASTERN-   MARKETS. 

We  need  also  to  distinguish  rather  sharply  the  differ- 
ent markets  open  to  us  in  the  Orient ;  for  the  conditions 
of  trade  in  these  markets  differ  greatly,  and  the  nature 
of  the  information  needed  and  the  methods  to  be  em- 
ployed, differ  accordingly.  It  is  probable  that  for  some 
years  to  come  our  chief  oriental  markets  will  be : 

(a)  The  Philippine  Islands ; 

(b)  China,  including  Manchuria ; 

(c)  Japan,  including  Corea; 

(d)  Other  minor  countries,  such  as  Hongkong,  the 
Straits  Settlements,  the  Dutch  East  Indies,  etc. 

The  Philippine  Islands.  While  the  Philippine 
Islands  are  in  one  sense  part  of  our  national  territory, 
in  another  sense  they  are  to  be  considered  in  much  the 
same  way  as  foreign  territory,  because  from  their  loca- 
tion many  of  their  problems,  such  as  the  question  of  for- 
eign exchange  in  the  payment  for  goods  and  the  cost  of 
transportation,  are  similar  to  those  in  connection  with 
other  countries  of  the  Far  East.  On  the  other  hand,  as 
regards  the  political  influences  which  have  a  bearing 
upon  their  commercial  condition,  the  problem  is  mainly 
domestic. 

The  Government  there  is^  of  necessity,  friendly  to  the 


EDUCATION  FOR  COMMERCE:    THE  FAR  EAST,   139 

Government  of  the  United  States.  (It  is  proper,  I 
think,  under  the  circumstances,  to  speak  of  a  ^^  necessary 
friendliness.")  The  Government  of  the  United  States 
is  disposed  also  to  favor  the  industries  of  the  Philippine 
Islands  at  the  expense,  if  need  be,  of  other  f  orei^  coun- 
tries, if  not  of  the  United  States  themselves.  The 
Philippines,  in  consequence,  form  in  certain  respects, 
perhaps,  a  better  field  for  investment  of  American  capi- 
tal than  do  the  other  countries  under  consideration.  It 
is  probable  also  that  some  of  the  products  of  the  Philip- 
pines are  better  adapted  at  the  present  time  for  Ameri- 
can investments  than  those  of  most  other  countries,  and 
investments  are  the  forerunners  of  commerce  in  such 
cases.  For  example,  nowhere  else  in  the  world  is  Manila 
hemp  (the  chief  commercial  product  of  the  Philippine 
Islands  for  export  purposes)  produced  to  any  noticeable 
extent,  and  as  yet,  in  spite  of  the  partial  competition  of 
sisal  and  other  fibers,  there  has  been  found  no  real  sub- 
stitute for  it.  Under  the  Spanish  regime,  and  so  far  un- 
der the  American  regime,  the  methods  of  cultivation,  of 
transportation,  of  purchase  and  sale  and  of  local  manu- 
facture of  the  hemp  are  of  a  very  primitive  nature. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  here  is  a  very  important 
field  for  the  development  of  American  commerce  through 
a  preliminary  investment  of  American  capital.  Com- 
missioner Forbes  lately  wrote  that  we  could  "  treble  the 
output  of  hemp  by  giving  adequate  transportation  and 
proper  pay  to  the  hemp  cleaners."  This  will,  in  the 
first  instance,  make  a  demand  for  American  machinery 
and  steel  in  the  Philippine  Islands,  and  then  later,  as 
the  hemp  industry  develops  in  importance  and  in  value, 


140  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

this  increased  wealth  will  lead  to  an  increased  demand 
for  other  American  products. 

The  same  statement  may  be  made  with  somewhat  less 
emphasis  regarding  the  tobacco  and  sugar  and  cocoannt 
industries  in  the  Philippines.  The  tobacco  industry  has 
already  been  developed  to  a  considerable  extent  by  Span- 
ish and  Filipino  capital,  although  there  still  remains 
an  opportunity  for  further  growth.  It  should  become 
an  immense  industry,  as  should  the  extraction  of  cocoa- 
nut  oil.  The  sugar  industry,  however,  remains  still  in 
a  decidedly  primitive  condition  and  apparently  needs 
for  its  large  expansion  only  a  somewhat  more  liberal 
policy  on  the  part  of  the  American  Congress  in  the  di- 
rection of  land  privileges  and  lowered  tariffs.  Such 
added  wealth  would  call  for  many  more  American  prod- 
ucts to  pay  for  the  exported  tobaccos,  copra  and  sugars. 
With  proper  methods  of  agriculture,  of  transportation, 
and  especially  of  manufacture  in  the  sugar  industry, 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  would  greatly  develop. 
Moreover,  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  when  the 
capital  was  once  invested,  the  increased  sugar  product 
would  be  sold  largely,  not  on  the  American  market,  as 
our  timid  advisers  of  Congress  seem  to  fear,  but  rather 
on  the  markets  of  China  and  other  countries  of  the  East, 
facts  just  made  plain  to  Secretary  Taft's  party  in 
Manila.  The  added  purchasing  power  of  the  Philip- 
pines would  still  make  a  demand  for  American  goods, 
even  though  the  product  itself  were  not  sent  directly  to 
the  United  States. 

Still  further  investments  in  the  building  of  railroads, 
of  electric  roads,  of  local  steamship  lines,  of  saw-mills, 


EDUCATION  FOR  COMMERCE:    THE  FAR  EAST.   141 

and  other  industries  of  the  Philippines,  would  carry  out 
this  same  principle  of  increasing  the  trade  of  our  home 
country  as  well  as  of  the  Philippines  themselves  through 
the  development  of  their  wealth  by  American  invest- 
ments. They  will  not  buy  much  more  than  they  do  now 
until  they  can  sell  more. 

China.  The  situation  in  China  is  much  the  same  as 
in  the  Philippines,  with  two  or  three  important  lines  of 
difference.  In  the  first  place,  the  money  of  China  is 
without  any  fixed  standard,  consisting  practically  in 
case  of  larger  payments  only  of  silver  bullion  to  be 
weighed  out.  Each  large  dealer — even  each  traveler  of 
means — has  his  own  scales  to  weigh  out  his  money,  while 
almost  every  separate  town  has  its  own  unit  of  weight 
differing  by  often  a  considerable  percentage  from  others. 
Silver  bullion,  too,  is  itself  a  marketable  product  of 
which  the  value  continually  fluctuates  in  terms  of  gold. 
These  things  make  the  risk  of  business  on  account  of  the 
impossibility  of  knowing  the  value  of  the  money  with 
which  one  is  making  his  purchases  or  in  which  one  may 
be  paid  for  his  products  so  much  like  gambling  risks, 
that  trade  must  of  necessity  be  hampered  until  the 
Chinese  Government  can  recognize  its  own  needs  enough 
to  adopt  some  standard  uniform  system.  The  late  de- 
crees of  the  Chinese  Government  on  that  subject  are  not 
reassuring. 

Again,  owing  to  a  considerable  degree  to  the  ill  treat- 
ment which  the  Chinese  have  received  from  some  for- 
eign countries  through  the  seizure  of  territory  and  the 
mistreatment  of  individual  Chinese,  as  well  as  to  the 
very  unfriendly  attitude  of  some  of  the  people  of  the 


142  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

United  States  in  connection  with  Chinese  immi^ation, 
and  the  rude  treatment  of  cultivated  Chinese  at  times 
by  our  immigration  officials,  the  Chinese  themselves 
are  disposed  to  be  suspicious,  and,  as  we  have  seen  of 
late,  even  decidedly  unfriendly  toward  American  trade. 
Not  only  are  they  inclined  to  boycott  American  goods 
in  their  purchases,  but  late  letters  from  China  inform 
me  that  they  are  urging  the  policy  of  refusing  to  work  at 
all  for  Americans,  to  unload  American  goods  from  ships, 
or  to  handle  them  in  any  way.  The  boycott  movement, 
put  into  eflFect  in  Shanghai,  Canton  and  other  ports  in 
July,  is  spreading  to  Hongkong,  the  Straits  Settlements 
and  even  to  Japan  and  other  places  ouside  of  China 
where  Chinese  live  in  large  numbers.  This  suggests 
another  point  in  connection  with  the  extension  of  for- 
eign commerce  upon  which  too  great  emphasis  cannot 
be  placed.  In  order  to  extend  business  in  any  country, 
the  dealings  with  that  country  both  of  the  Government 
and  of  private  merchants,  must  be  first  honest,  and  sec- 
ond courteous. 

There  are  many  lines  of  investment  in  Chinese  enter- 
prises which  besides  furnishing  adequate  returns  on 
capital  will  in  turn  encourage  American  exports  to 
China.  Not  only  may  railroads  and  mines  be  developed, 
but  such  industries  as  the  immense  silk  industry  are 
managed  by  antiquated  methods,  and  new  capital  and 
modern  methods  would  give  them  an  enormous  de- 
velopment. 

For  the  present  it  is  hard  to  tell  whether  the  condi- 
tions in  Manchuria  are  to  be  assimilated  to  those  in 
China  or  to  those  in  Japan.    It  is  quite  possible  that  the 


EDUCATION  FOR  COMMERCE:    THE  FAR  EAST.   143 

latter  will  be  the  case ;  but  in  any  event  the  conditions 
must  be  studied  carefully  with  reference  to  the  needs 
and  tastes  and  prejudices  of  the  people  of  Manchuria 
rather  than  to  our  own  customs. 

Japan,  The  conditions  in  Japan  need  to  be  differ- 
entiated quite  sharply  from  those  in  China.  In  the  first 
place,  the  monetary  system  is  satisfactory,  so  that  the 
risk  of  exchange  is  removed.  Second,  the  Japanese, 
while  disposed  to  be  friendly,  are  nevertheless,  as  a  na- 
tion, looking  much  more  carefully  after  their  own  spe- 
cial internal  interests  than  are  the  Chinese,  so  that  it  is 
perhaps  more  difficult  to  find  there  a  field  for  profitable 
investment.  As  is  well  known,  the  feeling  among  for- 
eign investors  in  Japan  in  many  instances  is  that  they 
have  not  always  been  treated  with  fairness  by  the  Japan- 
ese Government  (for  example  in  the  case  of  the  tobacco 
monopoly  and  at  times  in  the  courts)  ;  and  furthermore, 
that  Japanese  tradesmen  are  not  always  trustworthy  in 
their  dealings.  The  Japanese  are  making  earnest  efforts 
to  develop  their  own  manufactures  along  many  lines,  so 
that  their  market  needs  to  be  more  particularly  studied 
with  reference  to  the  nature  of  the  goods  which  Ameri- 
cans can  sell  there  as  well  as  with  reference  to  the  prod- 
ucts of  Japan  which  can  profitably  be  purchased  by 
Americans. 

The  Other  Countries.  No  different  condition  in  the 
other  countries  needs  especially  to  be  touched  upon  here 
as  they  are  severally  of  relatively  minor  importance. 
Hongkong,  a  British  possession,  serves  of  course  chiefly 
as  a  door  for  trade  in  China,  while  the  other  countries 
have  each  its  own  special  needs  to  be  studied. 


144  CITIZENSHIP  ANB  THE  SCHOOLS. 

SUGGESTIONS. 

This  hasty  indication  of  what  may  be  found  in  the 
Philippines  and  in  some  of  the  other  countries  serves 
as  a  basis  for  touching  briefly  upon  some  of  the  princi- 
ples that  need  to  be  taught  in  connection  with  our  com- 
mercial colleges  and  carefully  considered  by  our  ex- 
porters. First,  it  cannot  be  emphasized  too  often  that 
in  selling  goods  it  is  necessary  to  consider  the  likes  and 
dislikes  of  the  purchasers  rather  than  our  own.  Our 
consuls  are  continually  dwelling  upon  the  fact  that 
American  manufacturers  and  merchants  are  too  strongly 
inclined  to  insist  upon  keeping  their  own  standards  and 
imposing  those  standards  upon  the  Chinese,  Japanese, 
and  other  foreigners.  We  have  not  yet  felt  the  necessity 
of  developing  our  foreign  trade  (in  spite  of  all  that  we 
say  about  it  in  the  newspapers)  to  anything  like  the 
extent  to  which  it  has  been  felt  in  Europe,  and  in  conse- 
quence we  have  not  learned  this  lesson.  Illustrations 
from  two  of  our  late  consular  reports  will  explain : 

1.  Chinese  shoes  are  quite  different  in  type  and  style 
from  American  shoes;  in  consequence,  our  American 
rubber  over-shoes  and  boots  are  sold  hardly  at  all  in 
China,  whereas  Germany  is  supplying  many.  The  Ger- 
mans make  a  special,  short  half -boot  of  light  weight 
which  does  meet  Chinese  requirements,  and  the  Chinese 
are  using  them  in  large  numbers ;  whereas  the  American 
rubbers  can  be  worn,  and  are  worn  only  by  the  few 
Chinese  who  have  adopted  the  foreign  style  of  dress,  or 
by  those  who  wear  them  as  shoes  and  not  as  over-shoes, 

2.  Ginseng  is  another  American  product  which  for 


EDUCATION  FOR  COMMERCE:    THE  FAR  EAST.   145 

.  many  decades  has  been  valued  in  China.  As  is  well 
known,  many  Chinese  believe  that  the  ginseng  root  pos- 
sesses certain  mysterious  qualities  which  make  it  play  an 
important  part  in  their  lives,  and  which  render  it  in 
many  particulars  ^'  the  greatest  medicine  of  earth." 
They  believe  that  these  unusual  qualities  are  most  fre- 
quently found  in  roots  which  are  knotted  or  gnarled  or 
which  have  a  peculiar  color,  or  an  abnormal  shape,  par- 
ticularly if  the  root  resembles  some  fabulous  animal. 
These  facts  are  well  known  to  the  native  dealers,  but 
not  in  many  cases  to  the  American  producers.  The  con- 
sequence is  that  the  American  product,  which  is  culti- 
vated, often  takes  on  a  form  smooth  and  normal,  and  in 
consequence  relatively  of  slight  value,  whereas  a  little 

■  care  in  cultivation  would  render  a  root  gnarled  and  ugly 
and  consequently  many  times  more  valuable.  This  is 
not  suggesting  an  adulteration  or  a  misrepresentation 
^  of  the  product  nor  selling  under  false  labels  or  names ; 
it  suggests  meeting  your  customers'  wants.  In  many 
instances  the  chief  value  that  the  root  possesses  is  that  it 
satisfies  the  superstitious  desires  of  the  Chinese — not 
their  physical  needs.  The  Chinese  dealers  in  many 
cases,  owing  to  our  lack  of  knowledge  and  our  neglect 
to  classify  the  products  sent,  reap  a  profit  which  might 
equally  well  be  secured  by  the  American  producer,  pro- 
vided the  local  conditions  were  known ;  and  in  addition 
the  American  would  greatly  increase  his  sales. 

The  Germans  and  the  Japanese  have  far  outstripped 
us  in  their  readiness  to  meet  Chinese  needs.  Hundreds 
of  miles  in  the  interior  of  China  are  found  clocks,  cheap 
ornaments  and  toilet  articles  of  various  kinds  made  in 


146  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

Germany  or  Japan,  often  after  an  American  model, 
sometimes  labelled  as  American,  but  poorer  and  cheaper 
than  the  American  product,  and  in  consequence  more  ac- 
ceptable to  the  Chinese.  If  our  merchants  had  learned 
the  principle  that  they  must  study  the  needs  of  their 
customers  as  thoroughly  as  have  the  Germans  and  the 
Japanese,  we  should  in  many  cases  be  supplying  the 
needs  now  supplied  by  them. 

Moreover,  we  have  not  learned  to  pack  our  goods  well 
for  so  long  and  difficult  a  shipment.  In  consequence 
our  goods  frequently  arrive  in  the  Far  East  so  damaged 
that  they  are  scarcely  saleable — an  inexcusable  neglect 
showing  lack  of  intelligent  information. 

Again,  the  English  particularly,  but  also  the  Germans, 
have  accustomed  the  people  in  the  Far  East  to  long-time 
credits.  Obtaining  their  capital  at  low  rates  of  interest 
at  home,  they  will  readily  carry  an  account  for  six 
months  or  a  year,  whereas  our  dealers  often  require  pay- 
ment in  cash,  even  in  part  before  the  goods  are  deliv- 
ered. We  can  scarcely  hope  to  achieve  great  success  if 
we  do  not  recognize  customs  of  credit  such  as  these. 

Most  important,  perhaps,  of  all,  as  I  have  intimated 
before,  is  the  fact  that  we  do  not  always  have  the  reputa- 
tion of  fair  and  courteous  dealing,  either  politically  or 
in  a  business  way,  though  in  these  regards  we  are  on  the 
whole  not  worse  than  others.  The  Chinese  distrust  all 
foreigners  in  many  ways,  though  generally  recognizing 
the  business  honesty  of  the  regularly  established  houses. 

The  record  which  the  Americans  have  made  in  work- 
ing the  concession  for  what  is  possibly  the  most  import- 
ant railway  in  all  China  (the  Canton-Hankow  line). 


EDUCATION  FOR  COMMERCE:    THE  FAR  EAST.   I47 

has  greatly  discredited  us.  In  the  concession  it  was  pro- 
vided that  the  Company  should  be  and  should  remain 
American;  but  within  a  comparatively  short  time  the 
control  of  a  majority  of  the  stock  was  placed  in  the 
hands  of  the  Belgians,  who  were  apparently  so  associ- 
ated with  the  Erench  and  the  Russians  that  the  Chinese 
felt,  and  with  reason,  that  they  had  been  grossly  deceived 
and  mistreated,  not  to  use  so  strong  a  word  as  betrayed, 
by  the  Americans.  Only  under  pressure  of  the  threat 
of  canceling  the  concession  was  the  road  finally  bought 
back  by  Americans,  and  sold  back  to  the  Chinese  at  a' 
high  profit;  and  it  is  still  an  open  question  whether 
even  the  late  dealings  are  to  be  justified  on  moral 
grounds.  This  treatment,  which  the  Chinese  themselves 
believe  to  be  dishonorable,  and  which  very  many  Ameri- 
cans who  have  investigated  the  question  likewise  con- 
consider  dishonorable,  has  so  discredited  our  Govern- 
ment and  our  business  men,  that  the  small  amount  of 
money  made  by  a  few  private  speculators  has  been  lost 
hundreds  of  times  over  by  the  loss  of  national  and  busi- 
ness prestige  thereby  incurred  with  its  consequent  ill 
effect  upon  our  commerce. 

There  is  little  use  of  attempting  to  extend  trade  in  a 
country,  unless  we  are  willing  so  to  deal  that  the  citizens 
will  have  confidence  in  us  and  will  be  inclined,  on  the 
whole,  to  like  us  rather  than  to  dislike  us.  The  prompt 
action  of  the  President  in  his  orders  regarding  immigra- 
tion to  our  consuls  and  immigration  officials  is  clearly 
wise  and  right.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  we  have  learned 
a  lesson  from  our  humiliating  experience  in  connection 
with  the  Canton-Hankow  railway. 


148  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

It  is  to  be  said,  on  the  other  hand,  that  American  in- 
dividuals, whether  travelers  or  business  men  resident  in 
China,  are  often,  if  not  usually,  better  liked  personally 
by  the  Chinese  than  are  the  citizens  of  almost  any  other 
country.  Americans  as  a  rule  are  more  kindly  and  more 
courteous  in  their  treatment  of  the  Chinese  than  are 
others.  They  have  been  trained  in  a  democratic  coun- 
try, and  are  more  likely  to  treat  the  Chinese  as  equals, 
or  at  any  rate  as  human  beings,  than  as  beings  of  an  in- 
ferior order  which  may  be  beaten  or  kicked  or  insulted 
at  will.  I  have  seen  foreigners  traveling  in  the  Interior 
stone  Chinese  bystanders  who  were  merely  gratifying  a 
natural  curiosity  by  looking  at  them,  as  in  our  rural 
districts  where  Chinese  are  rarely  seen  they  would  be 
looked  at  by  our  people.  In  Peking  even,  I  saw  one  day 
an  Austrian  sentry,  instead  of  quietly  warning  off  an 
old  ignorant  Chinese  and  his  wife  riding  a  donkey  along 
a  forbidden  path,  utterly  innocent  of  any  wrongdoing, 
club  them  both  with  a  heavy  cane  until  the  old  woman 
fell  from  the  donkey  in  her  fright  and  efforts  to  dodge. 
Such  actions  arouse  feelings  against  all  foreigners  that 
are  seriously  detrimental  to  commerce. 

In  China  particularly  one  should  know  the  technical 
laws  growing  out  of  the  principle  of  exterritoriality, 
which  obtains  in  China  in  the  dealings  between  the 
Chinese  and  foreigners.  It  might  frequently  be  very 
useful  to  know  the  leading  points  in  the  commercial 
laws  of  Germany,  France,  England,  and  other  countries, 
because  the  laws  of  those  countries  are  administered  in 
China  in  the  consular  courts  representing  the  different 
countries.     Of  course  the  knowledge  of  goods  of  the 


EDUCATION  FOR  COMMERCE:    THE  FAR  EAST,   149 

type  which  the  merchant  proposes  to  sell  or  buy  is  essen- 
tial— this  much  in  general  in  common  with  the  prepara- 
tion for  all  commerce. 

We  need,  moreover,  to  train  our  young  men,  whether 
they  expect  to  serve  as  consuls  or  as  salesmen,  that,  if 
they  are  to  succeed,  they  must  be  prepared  to  stay  in 
the  Orient  a  considerable  length  of  time,  and  to  study 
carefully  the  conditions.  If  their  field  of  work  is  in 
China  and  they  wish  to  be  thorough,  they  must  learn 
Chinese — at  any  rate  must  learn  to  speak  the  commer- 
cial Chinese,  and  that  is  no  more  difficult  than  to  learn 
to  speak  German,  although  it  is  much  more  difficult  to 
learn  to  write  Chinese  than  to  learn  to  write  German. 
The  Germans  are  crmpelling  many  of  their  well-trained 
young  men  to  familiarize  themselves  with  the  Chinese 
language.  We  must  do  the  same  with  ours. 
/  Of  greater  importance  is  it,  however,  to  study  the 
'  Chinese  customs  of  living,  of  manufacturing,  of  buying 
and  selling,  so  that  our  manufacturers  may  fit  their  sup- 
plies to  the  local  demands,  and  may  stand  ready  to  learn 
what  opportunities  may  arise  for  improving  the  products 
of  China  which  they  may  wish  to  buy  for  export.  The 
general  principles  of  buying  and  selling,  of  account 
keeping,  etc.  may  be  learned  in  our  schools ;  the  details 
of  an  oriental  business  (for  they  are  vastly  different 
from  those  in  our  own  country)  can  be  learned  only  in 
the  Orient. 
j  The  principles  of  money  and  of  banking,  and  especi- 
ally of  foreign  exchange,  must  be  learned,  and  thor- 
oughly learned ;  first,  because,  on  account  of  the  present 
evils  arising  from  fluctuations  in  exchange,  business  is 


150  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

largely  speculative  and  it  is  necessary  to  reduce  the 
risks  as  far  as  possible;  and  second,  because  it  is  im- 
portant that  every  foreign  dealer  in  China  so  under- 
stand what  is  needed  that  his  influence  may  continually 
be  used  to  induce  the  Chinese  Government  to  improve 
its  system.  Too  many  of  the  suggestions  already  made 
by  foreigners,  some  of  them  indeed  largely  accepted  by 
the  Chinese,  have  been  suggestions  in  the  wrong  direc- 
tion. 

It  is  important,  too,  for  success  from  a  national  point 
of  view  in  this  commerce,  that  a  pretty  thorough  train- 
ing in  economics  be  had,  enough  to  know  and  to  feel 
that  it  will  pay  as  well  to  learn  what  the  Orient  can  sell 
as  what  it  will  buy,  to  see  that  exploitation  is  not  a 
sound  policy  for  a  permanent  foreign  trade,  but  that  a 
large  and  permanent  trade  can  be  built  up  in  the  long 
run  only  if  it  is  soundly  based  upon  a  fair  exchange  for 
the  benefit  of  both  countries,  and  that  an  investment  in  a 
foreign  country  for  the  purpose  of  developing  its  ex- 
port trade  may  prove  as  useful  to  the  home  nation  as 
selling  goods  in  that  foreign  country  for  the  immediate 
profit  of  the  home  exporter. 

Those  interested  in  our  commercial  expansion  in  the 
Far  East  may  also  look  further  and  see  what  can  be  done 
to  train  capable  Chinese  here ;  the  Japanese  are  looking 
well  after  their  own  training.  The  education  here  of 
Chinese  and  Japanese  will  also  extend  trade,  and  I  con- 
sider it  of  prime  importance  both  commercially  and 
politically.  It  is  well  known  that  Japan,  Belgium, 
Germany,  and  other  countries  are  offering  special  in- 
ducements to  young  Chinese  to  go  to  those  countries  to 


EDUCATION  FOR  COMMERCE:    THE  FAR  EAST.    151 

study,  and  they  are  going  to  those  countries  in  far  larger 
numbers  than  they  are  coming  here.  According  to  late 
estimates  there  are  some  3,000  government  students, 
besides  even  more  private  students,  in  Japan ;  300  to  500 
in  Germany;  as  many  in  France  and  Belgium;  while 
there  are  perhaps  150  in  the  United  States.  There  can 
be  no  doubt  that  when  these  Chinese  return  home  to 
undertake  work  as  engineers  or  as  manufacturers  or  as 
merchants  or  as  officials,  they  will  certainly  favor  in  the 
long  run  the  countries  in  which  they  have  been  trained. 
It  is  greatly  to  be  desired  that  both  our  Government  and 
our  people  do  what  they  can  to  encourage  Chinese, 
Japanese,  Filipinos  and  other  Orientals  to  come  here  to 
secure  their  training,  both  general  and  commercial.  We 
can  afford  to  make  good  financial  expenditures  to  bring 
about  that  result. 

And,  finally,  it  is  important  to  emphasize  again  that 
a  fundamental  business  principle  to  be  taught  in  our 
commercial  schools  and  to  be  kept  in  mind  is  that  toler- 
ant, liberal,  fair  dealing  is  the  only  wise  policy  from  the 
business  as  well  as  from  the  moral  point  of  view.  This 
principle  needs  particularly  to  be  emphasized  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Orient,  and  with  other  countries  less  de- 
veloped in  commercial  and  manufacturing  methods  than 
our  own,  because  the  temptation  is  always  stronger  to 
deal  unfairly  with  those  unversed  in  Western  methods, 
and  because,  as  a  matter. of  fact,  the  attempt  has  been 
made  and  in  many  cases  successfully,  both  by  govern- 
ments and  by  individuals,  to  exploit  unfairly  many  of 
the  Orientals. 


VT. 

FEEE  SPEECH  IN  AMEKICA:^  UNIVERSI- 
TIES.* 

"  The  right  of  private  judgment  will  subsist,  in  full  force,  wher- 
ever true  men  subsist.  A  true  man  believes  with  his  whole  judg- 
ment, with  all  the  illumination  and  discernment  that  is  in  him, 
and  has  a.lways  so  believed.  A  false  man,  only  struggling  to  *  be- 
lieve that  he  believes,*  will  naturally  manage  it  in  some  other 
way. "— Carlyle. 

The  grave  differences  of  opinion  between  the  presi- 
dent and  the  trustees  of  Brown  University  regarding 
the  duties  and  the  privileges  of  a  university  president 
make  it  desirable  that  the  nature  of  a  university  be  once 
more  carefully  considered  by  the  public;  for  no  one 
questions  the  good  faith  and  sincerity — even  the  rare 
conscientiousness — ^which,  on  the  one  hand,  forced  the 
trustees  in  the  performance  of  their  duty  to  suggest  to 
the  president  that  he  more  carefully  "  refrain  from  pro- 
mulgating "  his  private  opinions  on  certain  matters  of 
public  interest,  and,  on  the  other,  compelled  the  presi- 
dent in  the  interest  of  freedom  of  speech  for  university 
teachers  rather  to  lay  dovm  his  high  office  than  to  bind 
himself  beyond  what  his  own  good  sense  should,  as  oc- 

*  Written  at  the  time  of  the  resignation  of  President  Andrews 
from  Brown  University,  1897,  but  not  published. 
I  153 


154  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

casion  arose,  determine.  From  the  differing  points 
of  view  each  side  was  clearly  right;  the  right  point  of 
view  must  be  found  by  considering  the  aims  of  a  uni- 
versity and  the  best  means  of  attaining  them. 

Most  university  trustees  are  business  men,  accustomed 
to  employ  others  to  carry  out  their  views  and  to  repre- 
sent their  opinions  in  business  matters.  The  skilled 
workman  in  a  factory  may  have  opinions  of  his  own 
regarding  the  best  methods  of  work  and  the  best  rules 
for  laborers;  but  he  is  expected,  and  very  properly,  to 
carry  out  the  views  of  his  employer.  Even  in  other 
matters,  if  his  habits  or  his  views  spoil  his  efficiency  or 
injure  his  employer's  business,  he  is  not  permitted  to  re- 
main. An  employee  is  not  expected  to  talk  in  public  re- 
garding his  employer's  dishonesty  or  recklessness  in 
business  or  even  of  the  foolishness  of  his  investments,  if 
there  is  any  likelihood  that  the  employer's  credit  will  be 
lessened  by  the  talk. 

If  a  lawyer's  views  regarding  the  merits  of  a  case  are 
adverse  to  the  client's  interest  as  the  client  sees  it,  no 
one  blames  the  latter  for  seeking  another  lawyer. 

Or,  again,  if  in  a  Baptist  or  a  Congregational  theo- 
logical seminary  a  professor  becomes  convinced  that  only 
the  Koman  Catholic  church  has  the  right  views  regard- 
ing church  organization  and  government  or  regarding 
religious  doctrine  and  feels  called  upon  to  convince  the 
young  men  under  his  charge  that  their  church  is  wrong 
in  these  particulars,  few  people  would  question  either 
the  right  or  the  wisdom  of  the  trustees  in  calling  for 
the  professor's  resignation  and  advising  him  to  seek  a 
position  in   a  Koman   Catholic   seminary.     It  is  Tais 


FREE  SPEECH  IN  AMERICAN  UNIVERSITIES.    155 

business  to  promulgate  the  doctrines  of  his  church  as 
the  church  authorities  have  determined  them.  If  from 
deeper  study  he  comes  to  the  conclusion  that  the  views 
of  his  church  are  wrong,  he  may  properly  try  to  win 
the  church  to  his  views,  but  if  he  fails  he  must  be  ready 
to  go.  He  cannot  be  permitted  to  wreck  his  church  by 
teaching  false  doctrines — and  for  the  time  at  least  every 
doctrine  is  false  for  his  church  that  is  rejected  by  its 
authorities.  It  is  true  that  in  late  years  many  have 
believed  that  teachers  in  theological  seminaries,  special- 
ists of  great  learning,  should  be  permitted  to  teach 
without  interference  what  their  studies  have  led  them 
to  believe  is  true ;  but  when  questions  are  fundamental  to 
the  special  doctrine,  all  would  agree  that  this  freedom 
is  impossible.  How  could  a  Baptist  professor  believe 
in  sprinkling  and  still  be  a  Baptist,  or  a  Eoman  Catho- 
lic fail  to  recognize  the  authority  of  his  superior ! 

But  the  purpose  of  a  university  in  the  best  use  of  that 
word  is  different.  It  does  not  exist  to  carry  out  the 
specific  plans  of  its  trustees  as  regards  business  or  doc- 
trine. It  cannot  proselyte  nor  specially  shape  opinions 
without  being  false  to  its  principles  as  a  university.  A 
university  exists  to  seek  for  truth  in  its  various  phases 
and  to  make  of  its  students  investigators,  seekers  after 
truth.  It  must  not  even  make  it  a  chief  purpose  to 
teach  the  truth  as  its  professors  see  it.  If  it  attempts 
this  chiefly,  it  becomes  a  mere  seminary  (a  place  for 
sowing  seed)  or  trade  school,  and  no  longer  a  univer- 
sity in  the  proper  sense. 

The  spirit  of  a  university  is  in  its  teachers.  The 
great  teachers  are  not  men  who  merely  tell  what  they 


156  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

have  learned — any  parrot  can  do  that — and  as  a  source 
of  mere  information  a  book  is  often  better  than  a  man ; 
but  the  great  teachers  are  men  who  can  open  the  eyes 
of  their  pupils  to  see  the  truth,  and  can  fill  their  hearts 
with  a  determination  to  seek  the  truth  and  to  live  by  it. 
The  university  exists,  not  to  make  scientists  or  philoso- 
phers in  the  technical  sense,  but  to  make  men  of  all  pro- 
fessions who  shall  be  independent  and  resourceful  and 
lovers  of  truth ;  and  such  men  cannot  be  made  by  teach- 
ers whose  business  it  is  to  administer  dogmas,  whether 
such  dogmas  be  theological  or  biological  or  political. 
Independence  of  spirit  and  soundness  of  judgment  are 
essential  qualifications  for  the  highest  success  in  life, 
and  it  is  these  qualifications  that  the  university  seeks  to 
give. 

Moreover,  this  view  is  the  practical  one.  It  is  true 
that  the  university  is  a  place  where  a  student  acquires 
knowledge.  If  his  taste  leads  him  to  study  entomology 
or  electrical  engineering  or  bridge  building  or  Greek  or 
political  economy  as  a  specialty,  he  will  acquire  a  knowl- 
edge of  many  facts  in  connection  with  his  subject ;  but 
he  will  never  become  a  master,  a  man  who  is  fit  for  great 
work  in  his  specialty,  unless  he  has  also  acquired  inde- 
pendence of  judgment  and  readiness  of  resource  in  meet- 
ing new  problems.  The  civil  engineer  has  a  new 
hitherto  unsolved  problem  with  every  new  bridge;  the 
statesman  one  with  every  new  tax  law.  Conditions 
in  practical  life  are  never  twice  the  same,  and  only  sound 
judgment  and  independent  power  will  avail  in  meeting 
new  conditions.  Not  knowledge  primarily,  but  power, 
is  what  one  needs  in  life,  and  good  sense  and  independ- 


FREE  SPEECH  IN  AMERICAN  UNIVERSITIES.    157 

ent  judgment  are  worth  more  than  knowledge.  Knowl- 
edge can  be  communicated  by  dogmatic  teaching;  inde- 
pendent judgment  can  be  developed  only  by  throwing 
the  student  on  his  own  resources,  making  him  think  out 
his  problems  for  himself,  with  no  attempt  on  the  part 
of  the  teacher  to  urge  his  own  opinion.  Unless  the 
teacher  can  give  his  pupils  the  feeling,  not  merely  that 
they  are  free  to  form  their  own  opinions  on  all  questions 
that  come  up,  but  that  they  must  form  such  opinions 
with  perfect  fairness  and  freedom,  he  is  a  failure  as  a 
university  teacher. 

This  is  not  the  view  of  the  functions  of  the  university 
that  is  commonly  taken  by  the  newspapers,  and  presum- 
ably by  many  of  the  best  university  trustees ;  but  it  is 
the  view  generally  accepted  by  those  most  skilled  in 
training  young  people,  and  reflection  shows  us  that  it 
is  the  right  one.  We  more  frequently  see  the  statement 
made  that  universities  are  to  teach  the  truth — and  in 
such  connection  truth,  of  course,  can  mean  only  truth 
as  some  one,  the  speaker,  sees  it.  The  burden  of  the 
complaint  against  President  Andrews  is  that  he  has 
been  uttering  the  truth  as  he  sees  it,  and  not  as  it  is  seen 
by  the  Corporation.  On  this  point  not  only  the  letter 
of  the  committee  but  also  that  of  Mr.  Walker,  and  even 
the  wisely  temperate  letter  of  Dr.  Wayland,  agree. 
None  of  them  questions  the  President's  sincerity  or  his 
manliness.  As  I  understand  the  matter,  none  of  them 
would  hint  for  a  moment  that  his  influence  over  young 
men  in  the  university  would  be  anything  but  inspiring, 
ennobling,  uplifting.  They  believe  that  his  political 
views,  if  put  into  effect,  would  lead  to  dishonesty.    He, 


158  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

with  equal  sincerity,  believes  that  their  political  views 
put  into  effect  have  led  to  dishonesty.  (In  both  cases  I 
rule  out  the  meaning  of  intentional  wTong-doing.) 

IsTow  this  difference  of  opinion,  frankly  avowed  and 
clearly  understood,  would  stimulate  young  men  at  Brown 
University  to  face  the  question  of  free  silver  coinage 
fairly,  fully,  freely,  and  would  form  a  test  exercise  of 
uncommon  interest  and  value  in  training  their  powers 
of  independent  thought  leading  to  conscientious  action. 
That  one  of  them  could  be  injured  intellectually  or 
morally  by  such  a  study  of  a  controverted  question  is 
inconceivable.  But  if  he  were  given  only  one  side  of 
every  such  question  and  had  the  doctrine  fed  him  as 
the  only  mental  and  moral  nourishment,  his  mind  and 
heart  might  be  crammed  with  learning  and  prejudice 
indeed,  but  would  surely  be  dwarfed  from  lack  of  free 
exercise.  Moreover,  if  he  knew  that  his  professor  or 
president  was  hampered  in  expression  of  opinion  by  the 
views  of  others — especially  by  those  who  must  have 
studied  the  question  with  less  care  than  himself — he 
would  surely  be  led  to  feel  that  the  pursuit  of  truth  was 
not  an  attractive  purpose  in  life,  nor  would  he  reverence 
and  follow  the  example  of  his  teacher,  but  would  despise 
him  as  a  weakling.  And  this  attitude  toward  the  teacher 
is  of  vital  import  in  all  universities.  There  is  little 
education  of  consequence  that  does  not  come  through 
personal  contact.  Every  thoughtful  man  knows  that 
there  is  no  other  ennobling  power  that  can  compare  in 
efficiency  with  that  of  a  strong  personality,  working 
freely  on  terms  of  intimacy  with  those  who  are  young 
and  impressionable.     To  put  a  seal  upon  the  lips  of 


FREE  SPEECH  IJSl  AMERICAN  UNIVERSITIES,    159 

strong,  good  men  is  to  dry  up  the  fountains  of  life  of 
the  people. 

But  besides  these  general  considerations  regarding  the 
purpose  and  method  of  a  university,  one  should  note 
some  specific  points  made  by  the  trustees  of  Brown.  It 
is  urged  first,  and  very  properly,  that  persons  in  posi- 
tions of  responsibility  must  place  limits  upon  their 
utterances,  that  their  very  position  binds  them  to  self- 
restraint.  This  is  doubtless  true;  but  here  again  we 
should  seek  for  the  guiding  principle.  The  power  for 
good  is  not  limited  by  restraints  that  are  self  imposed 
for  worthy  reasons;  it  is  limited  by  external  restraints 
that  hamper  its  efficiency. 

All  will  agree  that  the  highest  duty  of  every  man  is  to 
further  the  best  interests  of  society  to  the  utmost  of  his 
ability.  Most  people  will  agree  that  this  can  almost,  if 
not  quite,  invariably  be  done  best  by  devoting  one's 
energies  to  the  special  work  in  life  that  one  has  under- 
taken. If  one  is  a  physician,  his  greatest  service  can  be 
rendered  by  furthering  the  interests  of  his  profession ;  if 
one  is  a  preacher,  let  him  devote  himself  to  the  moral 
and  spiritual  uplifting  of  his  fellows;  if  one  is  a  uni- 
versity president,  let  him  place  before  all  else  the  true 
welfare  of  his  university. 

Most  political  campaigns,  like  the  one  here  involved,* 
have  a  moral  phase ;  but  opinions  always  differ  as  to  the 
side  which  is  right.  In  almost  all  cases  the  preacher 
will  find  that  his  influence  for  good,  even  in  political 
matters,  is  greatest  if  he  in  a  non-partisan  way  sees  the 

*  The  campaign  of  1896  in  which  the  question  of  the  free  coin* 
age  of  silver  was  the  main  issue. 


160  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

good  on  both  sides  and  the  evils  in  both  parties  and  con- 
fines his  preaching  to  combating  generally  recognized 
evils  and  aiding  the  well-known  good  without  preaching 
party  politics.  To  be  sure  he  might  possibly  carry  an 
election  locally  sometimes  by  so  preaching;  but,  if  he 
did,  he  would  probably  by  so  doing  gain  the  reputation 
of  being  a  one-sided  partisan  who  could  see  evil  only 
in  his  opponents,  good  only  in  his  friends ;  and  his  per- 
manent influence  for  good  with  a  large  proportion  of 
the  community,  including  probably  many  of  his  own 
congregation,  would  be  destroyed. 

It  may  be  that  on  rarest  occasions  a  minister  should  in 
the  interest  of  his  fellows  abandon  the  pulpit  for  the 
platform  or  the  battlefield ;  usually  when  he  does  so  it  is 
because  he  is  carried  away  by  partisan  feeling,  not  be- 
cause he  is  moved  by  a  wise  patriotism.  Likewise,  a 
university  professor  of  politics  or  economics,  or  possibly 
a  university  president,  by  entering  the  arena  of  par- 
tisan contest  may  weaken  his  direct  influence  over  those 
in  his  charge  by  gaining  a  reputation  of  being  prejudiced 
on  one  side.  It  may  be  in  grave  emergencies  that  it 
is  his  duty  to  take  an  active  part  in  politics,  even 
though  his  imiversity  influence  be  weakened ;  but  in  most 
cases  his  service  to  the  public  is  likely  to  be  greater  if 
his  attitude  is  that  of  a  fair-minded  man  rather  than  of 
a  partisan.  While  a  teacher  of  politics  or  economics 
may  perhaps  be  fair-minded  and  active  in  party  politics, 
his  students  of  the  opposite  party  will  hardly  think  so. 
This  however  does  not  mean  that  a  Christian  minister, 
a  professor  of  economics  or  politics,  or  a  university 
president  is  not  to  have  positive  opinions  on  political 


FREE  SPEECH  IN  AMERICAN  UNIVERSITIES.    161 

questions  and  to  express  them.  They  are  all  citizens 
of  the  State,  and  from  their  positions  ought  to  be  un- 
usually well  informed  on  public  affairs.  Their  counsel 
ought  to  be  of  value.  It  is  simply  a  question  of  the 
way  to  render  the  greatest  service  in  the  long  run ;  and 
the  probability  is  that  this  will  be  by  fair-minded,  tem- 
perate expression  of  well-considered  views  as  occasion 
demands,  not  by  active  partisan  work,  which,  for  men 
in  their  position,  is  likely  to  lessen  materially  their  influ- 
ence in  their  regular  work.  But  the  man  who  fears  to 
give  an  honest  opinion  on  a  public  question  which  he 
has  especially  studied  because  it  might  offend  someone 
who  has  power  over  him,  is  a  coward  and  a  traitor  to 
the  good  of  the  community,  whose  influence  will  not  go 
far  because  people  will  not  respect  or  trust  him. 

On  the  other  hand,  we  must  not  overlook  the  fact  that 
intemperate  or  ill-advised  or  indiscreet  expressions  of 
opinion  or  unwise  disclosures  of  policy  are  among  the 
best  evidences  of  incompetency  that  a  board  of  trustees 
can  have.  When  a  professor  is  dismissed — and  prop- 
erly dismissed — for  incompetency,  he  and  his  friends 
will  naturally  feel  that  the  cause  must  be  something 
else,  and  they  are  likely  to  refer  it  to  the  prejudices  of 
the  trustees.  They  charge  an  attack  upon  freedom  of 
teaching  when  the  true  cause  is  unfitness ;  unfitness  not 
because  the  professor  has  wrong  views — that  is  of  slight 
moment — but  because  he  has  not  good  sense,  tact  and 
judgment,  which  alone  would  fit  him  for  his  work. 

The  supporters  of  the  views  of  the  trustees  of  Brown 
University,  including  Dr.  Wayland  and  Mr.  Walker, 
urge,  secondly,  that  the  doctrine  of  the  free  coinage  of 


162  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

silyer  is  immoral  and  that  the  teaching  of  immoral 
tenets  must  be  stopped.  All  will  agree  that  the  teach- 
ing of  some  doctrines  abhorrent  to  the  moral  sense  of  the 
community  ought  not  to  be  permitted  in  a  university. 
A  professor  who  advocated  openly  or  secretly  free  love 
or  burglary  or  generally  recognized  crime  or  any  crime 
of  any  kind  ought  clearly  to  be  removed;  but  any  sub- 
ject whatever  that  in  the  field  of  religion  or  science  or 
politics  is  so  debatable  that  it  can  be  a  matter  of  party 
division  is  clearly  not  included  in  this  class.  To  at- 
tempt to  put  it  there  is  simply  to  declare  one's  self  ill- 
informed  or  narrow-minded  or  bigoted.  Tolerance  has 
been  said  to  spring  from  indifference,  and  this  may  be 
true  at  times ;  but  generally  speaking  it  comes  from  en- 
lightenment. Every  well-informed  student  of  econ- 
nomics  and  politics  knows  that  every  question  that  be- 
comes the  cause  of  division  between  parties  has  truth 
enough  on  both  sides  so  that  equally  honest  and  upright 
men  may  be  found  on  either  side. 

I  trust  that  it  will  not  seem  invidious  to  call  attention 
to  the  fact  that  it  is  rather  presumptuous  for  the  trustees 
of  Brown  University  and  the  newspapers  that  side  with 
them  to  assume  that  nothing  short  of  mental  weakness 
or  blind  prejudices  or  moral  obliquity  can  explain  Presi- 
dent Andrews'  attitude  on  the  silver  question ;  for  every 
well-informed  man  knows  that  he  has,  prima  facie  at 
any  rate,  a  better  right  to  a  positive  opinion  on  this 
most  complicated  and  difficult  question  than,  certainly, 
most  of  these  critics.  He  was  delegated  by  the 
United  States  Government  to  represent  it  at  the  Inter- 
national Monetary  Conference  of  Brussels  in  1892  be- 


FREE  SPEECH  IN  AMERICAN  UNIVERSITIES.    163 

cause  of  his  special  knowledge  of  this  subject.  His  rep- 
utation as  a  student  of  this  special  subject  is  certainly  far 
greater  than  that  of  the  great  majority  of  his  trustees ; 
and  the  significance  of  his  utterance  was  not  chiefly, 
as  Dr.  Wayland  implies,  because  he  was  president  of 
Brown  University,  but  because  he  was  a  world-wide 
authority  on  that  special  question.  Even  if  one  were  to 
urge  the  popular  verdict,  the  majority  of  the  Rhode 
Islanders  have  more  than  once  committed  themselves 
to  the  doctrine  of  international  bimetallism,  and  if  the 
doctrine  of  free  silver  is  dishonest,  that  of  international 
bimetallism  is  less  so  only  in  degree.  Either  plan 
would  lessen  the  value  of  gold.  Moreover,  every  student 
knows  that  the  decided  majority  of  special  students  of 
the  subject  the  world  over  have  expressed  themselves  on 
the  side  of  international  bimetallism,  so  far  as  its 
economic  practicability  is  concerned.  Many  of  them 
oppose  it  now,  because  they  believe  that  it  is  politically 
impossible,  and  that  therefore  to  advocate  it  is  like  chas- 
ing moonshine.  But  whatever  his  conclusion,  every  one 
who  has  really  thoroughly  studied  the  question  has  so 
keen  a  sense  of  its  complexity  and  almost  infinite  difii- 
culty  that  he  will  not  quickly  accuse  any  man  who 
differs  from  him  in  opinion  of  either  insincerity  or  men- 
tal obtuseness  or  moral  obliquity.  Since  natural  science 
has  been  thoroughly  studied  apart  from  religious  prej- 
udices, few  men  venture  to  criticise  a  scientific  expert's 
judgment  in  his  chosen  field.  In  a  similar  way,  but 
partly  too  from  indifference,  most  educated  people  are 
tolerant  on  religion  to  a  fair  degree.  But  few  people 
recognize  the  complexity  and  difficulty  of  economic  and 


164  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

political  problems,  while,  as  the  State's  action  is  likely 
to  affect  their  pockets,  they  have  an  intense  and  abiding 
interest  in  them.  The  consequence  is  often  an  intol- 
erance regarding  these  matters  no  longer  found  in  other 
fields. 

It  is  urged  further  that  the  president  of  a  university 
especially,  and  its  professors  in  a  less  degree,  "  repre- 
sent the  corporation,''  and  must  therefore  not  express 
opinions  that  differ  from  those  of  the  trustees,  if  the 
trustees  think  them  important.  But  surely  the  trustees 
are  represented  by  these  men  only  in  strictly  university 
matters.  A  Republican  Baptist  minister  might  well 
represent  in  a  religious  convention  a  congregation  made 
up  chiefly  of  Populists.  Likewise  a  Koman  Catholic 
representative  in  Congress  might  well  be  the  best  repre- 
sentative for  a  Protestant  constituency.  He  is  not 
representing  their  religion  but  their  political  interests, 
though  the  foolish  prejudices  of  voters  might  prevent 
their  electing  him  even  if  he  were  the  best  man  for  the 
place.  Are  trustees  of  a  university  also  to  be  moved  by 
prejudice  ?  The  trustees  of  a  college  may  wisely  ques- 
tion whether  their  president  or  professors  are  fairly 
representing  their  spirit  in  arousing  in  the  hearts  of 
their  students  the  hunger  for  truth  and  the  determina- 
tion to  live  for  its  satisfaction.  If  they  demand  beyond 
this  that  the  president  and  professors  shall  close  the 
minds  of  the  students  to  all  aspects  of  the  truth  except- 
ing those  enjoyed  by  the  trustees  themselves  (and  this 
they  do  when  they  ask  their  representative  to  abstain 
from  a  fair  expression  of  his  views  when  his  own  good 
sense  tells  him  that  on  a  public  question  he  should 


FREE  SPEECH  IN  AMERICAN  UNIVERSITIES.    165 

speak  his  thoughts  as  a  man  and  citizen),  they  are  either 
short-sightedly  failing  to  see  the  true  purpose  of  the 
university  or  they  are  recreant  to  their  trust,  and  are 
trying  to  use  the  organization  endowed  for  the  broaden- 
ing of  minds  to  further  their  own  selfish  or  narrow- 
minded  views.  Personally  I  do  not  question  the 
worthiness  of  motive  of  the  Brown  trustees;  but  how 
will  the  millions  of  sincere,  honest,  though  possibly 
unwise  men  who  believe  in  the  free  coinage  of  silver 
judge  the  motives  of  a  board  who  permit  one  of  their 
professors  to  leave  his  students  for  seven  weeks  to 
preach  the  doctrine  of  gold  which  the  silver  men  believe 
dishonest,  and  strive  to  still  the  tongue  of  a  more  gene- 
rally recognized  authority  on  the  subject  who  merely  in 
answer  to  a  friend's  question  expressed  a  belief  in  the 
free  coinage  of  silver ! 

But  again,  how  does  a  professor  represent  his  college  ? 
A  lawyer  represents  his  client,  a  physician  represents 
his  patient's  interest;  but  in  both  cases  the  representa- 
tives are  experts,  and  if  sincerely  working  for  their 
clients'  interests  their  clients  are  called  fools  if  they 
do  not  grant  them  a  wide  discretion.  It  may  be  at 
times,  of  course,  that  they  must  call  the  expert's  atten- 
tion to  conditions  that  may  have  escaped  his  attention ; 
but  the  judgment  must  almost  invariably  be  his.  So  in 
a  university,  the  professor  is  engaged  as  an  expert.  He 
will  always  be  glad  to  have  his  attention  called  to  the 
facilities  furnished  him  for  doing  his  work,  to  the  condi- 
tions of  all  kinds  surrounding  him;  but  the  conduct  of 
the  work  must  be  left  to  him  or  the  work  cannot  be  well 
done.     If  he  is  not  better  fitted  to  conduct  his  work  than 


166  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

are  his  trustees,  including  his  conduct  in  private  affairs 
so  far  as  it  can  affect  his  work,  he  ought  not  to  be  in 
his  place. 

But  it  is  said,  again,  that  while  the  trustees  cannot 
wisely  interfere  with  a  professor  in  teaching  his  special- 
ity, for  that  would  be  an  unwise  interference  with  the 
freedom  of  academic  teaching,  a  university  president  is 
an  executive  oflScer — and  at  Brown  President  Andrews 
is  not  hired  to  teach  political  economy — and  suggestions 
to  him  not  to  express  his  views  on  political  questions  is 
not  interference  with  freedom  of  teaching.  ITo  man 
who  knows  and  feels  the  spirit  of  a  university  life  can 
fail  to  consider  this  a  mere  quibble.  The  essence  of 
true  teaching,  as  has  been  said,  is  the  awakening  of  zeal 
for  a  fair-minded  search  for  truth.  The  spirit  may  be 
given  in  many  ways,  outside  the  class-room  as  well  as  in 
it ;  and  no  one  so  much  as  the  president  ought  to  be  the 
impersonation  of  the  higher  life  of  truth-seeking  and 
truth-loving.  !N^o  man  who  cannot  be  trusted  to  speak 
wisely  and  keep  silent  discreetly  is  fit  for  such  a  place ; 
but  no  man  in  such  a  place  can  have  his  course  dictated 
by  others  without  losing  his  influence  for  good.  More- 
over, on  questions  of  public  import  on  which  a  man  from 
his  special  study  believes  himself  qualified  to  speak,  a 
man  must  be  ready  to  speak  temperately  and  justly 
when  asked,  even  if  his  opinions  find  no  echo  in  the 
minds  of  the  trustees  or  of  the  community;  otherwise 
he  is  too  poor  a  citizen  and  too  small  a  soul  to  kindle 
in  the  minds  of  his  students  the  loyalty  and  zeal  for 
truth  which  it  is  his  chief  duty  to  inspire.  Young  men 
like  neither  cowards  nor  time-servers,  nor  respect  them. 


FREE  SPEECH  IN  AMERICAN  UNIVERSITIES,    167 

The  trustees  of  a  university,  then,  have  not  merely 
the  privilege  but  the  duty  of  furthering  the  interests 
of  the  institution  in  their  charge  in  every  practicable 
way.  It  is  their  business  to  find  fit  professors  and  presi- 
dents and  to  remove  or  guide  those  who  in  their  judg- 
ment are  unfit.  The  question  whether  they  shall  at- 
tempt to  restrict  the  expression  of  professors  or  presi- 
dents on  political  or  religious  or  scientific  questions  is 
purely  one  of  expediency. 

From  consideration  of  the  purpose  of  the  university 
itself,  however,  it  appears  that  interference  with  such 
freedom  of  expression  can  be  only  detrimental.  The 
other  opinion  can  have  come  only  from  misconception 
or  forgetfulness  of  the  highest  aims  of  a  university, 
and  from  dwelling  too  much  upon  the  function  of  mere 
knowledge  giving.  The  professors  too  are  largely  re- 
sponsible for  this.  Many  of  them  teach  chiefly  with 
that  in  view.  Many  of  them,  even  in  economics  and 
politics,  seem  to  feel  that  to  drive  the  right  doctrines, 
i.e.,  their  doctrines,  into  their  students'  minds  is  the 
main  thing,  forgetting  that  the  questions  of  to-day  may 
be  settled  to-morrow,  or  that  new  conditions  may  make 
the  solutions  of  to-day  false  to-morrow ;  and  that  there- 
fore impartial  judgment  and  power  to  grapple  suc- 
cessfully with  social  problems  is  what  especially  the 
coming  statesmen  need. 

From  this  standpoint  too,  of  mere  knowledge  giving, 
the  financial  interests  of  the  university  are  apt  to  assume 
an  exaggerated  importance.  They  are  of  grave  import- 
ance, of  course,  but  the  chief  expenditures  of  a  uni- 
versity are  for  knowledge  giving.     For  building  men 


168  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

into  truth-loving,  truth-seeking  characters,  the  chief 
essential  is  the  personality  of  the  teacher,  and  the  life 
blood  of  this  personality  must  be  freedom  with  no  limits 
save  those  wisely  self-imposed. 

But  beyond  its  special  import  to  teachers  and  univer- 
sities, the  question  to-day,  with  our  great  universities 
largely  endowed  by  wealthy  men  or  directly  dependent 
on  the  state,  has  a  far-reaching  social  significance.  The 
wealthy  business  man  is  wont  to  rule.  It  is  natural 
that  he  should  see  somewhat  too  clearly  perhaps  the 
excellence  of  business  methods.  With  the  best  of  inten- 
tions, too,  it  is  natural  that  needy  institutions — and  all 
universities  are  in  need — should  attempt  to  please  pos- 
sible benefactors,  whether  wealthy  men  or  legislators, 
by  catering  to  their  tastes.  Energy  should  rather  be 
expended  in  giving  to  benefactors  the  right  views  re- 
garding universities,  though  this  at  first  would  not 
prove  so  successful  financially.  The  danger  of  lower- 
ing university  ideals  for  money,  though  possibly  not 
so  imminent  as  many  think,  is  grave;  for  truth 
cannot  stoop  to  sue  for  favor.  The  university  officials 
who  compromise  opinion  for  money  are  stifling  that 
breath  of  freedom  by  which  alone  the  true  university 
can  live.  The  attempt,  conscious  or  unconscious,  to 
stop  the  expression  of  economic  or  political  error  is  in 
our  country  anarchistic  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  word, 
for  our  ideal  government  is  free.  To-day  the  socialists 
are  saying  that  the  wealthy  and  the  powerful  are  the 
anarchists,  for  it  is  thev,  it  is  said,  who  are  wresting 
the  laws  away  from  their  constitutional  intent ;  it  is  they 
who  threaten  resistance  to  the  will  of  the  majority  when 


FREE  SPEECH  IN  AMERICAN  UNIVERSITIES.    169 

that  will  seems  to  thwart  their  interests ;  it  is  they  who 
at  times  buy  legislators  and  stifle  the  expression  of 
public  opinion.  The  accusation  is  becoming  a  frequent 
one,  and  many  believe  in  its  truth,  that  even  to-day 
preachers  and  teachers  are  the  hirelings  of  the  rich  and 
powerful,  bound  to  inculcate  error  instead  of  to  seek  for 
and  to  promulgate  truth.  The  charge  to-day,  fortunately 
for  our  country,  has  only  the  slightest  basis  of  truth ;  but 
there  can  be  little  doubt  that  many  influences  are  tending 
that  way.  It  behooves,  therefore,  the  guardians  of  our 
universities  that  the  charge  shall  not  merely  not  become 
true,  but  that  no  acts  of  theirs  shall  so  much  as  arouse 
the  suspicion  that  it  may  be  true.  Even  such  a  sus- 
picion would  do  our  universities  more  harm  than  the 
open  teaching  of  error.  Error  promulgated  in  the  light 
is  not  dangerous.  In  social  struggles  each  side  that 
believes  itself  in  the  right  welcomes  an  open  contest. 
He  who  shrinks  from  an  open  contest,  but  would  strike 
an  opponent  in  the  dark,  confesses  his  weakness.  Truth 
fights  best  in  the  open. 


VII. 

A  CEITIQUE  or  EDUCATIONAL  VALUES.* 

"  This  gives  force  to  the  strong, — that  the  multitude  have  no 
habit  of  self-reliance  or  original  action."— Emerson. 

The  article  on  "  The  Educational  Value  of  College 
Studies/'  by  Professor  Patten,  which  appeared  in  the 
Educational  Review  for  February,  1891,  is  so  sound 
in  many  of  its  positions  and  so  interesting  and  suggestive 
throughout,  that  it  may  seem  almost  invidious  to  write  in 
opposition  to  the  views  therein  expressed;  and  yet  the 
very  ability  of  the  article  is,  perhaps,  a  reason  why  its 
mistaken  opinions  should  be  controverted.  Especially 
is  this  true,  if,  as  appears,  those  opinions  are  such  that 
they  would,  if  generally  received,  prove  a  real  hindrance 
to  the  progress  of  educational  science  and  practice ;  and 
false  opinions  on  such  a  subject  might  readily  lead  to  a 
revision  of  college  studies  that  would  prove  very  injur- 
ious. 

With  the  purpose  of  college  life  and  college  studies 
as  interpreted  by  Professor  Patten,  whatever  some  so- 
called  practical-minded  parents  may  think,  all  progres- 
sive teachers  will  in  the  main  agree.  Professor  Patten 
well  says :  "  The  educational  value .  lies  not  in  the 
knowledge  imparted,  but  in  the  effect  upon  the  student. 

*  Published  in  the  "  Educational  Review,''^  January,  1893. 

171 


172  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

It  gives  him  a  better  capacity  for  work,  a  faculty  to  do 
other  work  of  a  like  character,  purer  ideas  of  life, 
greater  confidence  in  his  intellect,  and  keener  apprecia- 
tion of  his  moral  obligations."  To  all  this  everyone 
will  give  the  heartiest  assent.  I  find  myself  also  in 
full  accord  with  the  nature  of  his  dissent  from  those 
whom  he  calls  the  "  thinkers  of  the  old  school,"  when 
he  says :  "  I  agree  heartily  with  the  thinkers  of  the  old 
school  in  desiring  to  keep  the  college  course  a  culture 
course.  I  differ  with  them,  however,  by  thinking  that 
certain  parts  of  the  new  sciences  contain  elements  that 
have  as  great  an  educational  value  as  that  of  the  old 
studies  which  they  displaced."  But  it  is  when  he 
attempts  to  fix  these  elements  of  educational  values, 
and  especially  when  he  tells  upon  what  these  values  de- 
pend, that  he  is,  in  my  judgment,  at  fault.  I  wish  to 
touch  first  upon  the  method  of  teaching  a  subject  as 
determining  its  educational  value ;  for  unless  Professor 
Patten's  article  is  misleading  in  this  regard,  he  greatly 
underestimates  this  factor.  He  may  have  purposely 
omitted  the  discussion  of  this  point  for  want  of  space ; 
but,  if  so,  he  should  have  warned  us.  His  article  leads 
one  to  think  that  he  considers  it  of  relatively  little  im- 
portance. 

To  be  sure,  in  one  or  two  places  in  the  article,  he  seems 
to  believe  that  the  educational  value  of  a  study  depends 
upon  the  way  in  which  it  is  taught.  Yet  he  lays  special 
stress  upon  content,  with  the  various  modifications 
brought  in  by  ^^  the  inherited  qualities  of  the  college 
student,  the  life  the  student  is  to  lead,  and  the  judg- 
ments he  must  most  commonly  make,  the  state  of  prog- 


A  CRITIQUE  OF  EDUCATIONAL   VALUES.       173 

ress  of  the  science — ^whether  inductive,  deductive,  or 
transitional — ,  and  the  character  of  the  premises  of  the 
science  and  the  confidence  the  student  has  in  them," 
besides  some  other  minor  factors  that  he  does  not  deem 
of  suificient  consequence  to  mention.  He  even  says,  on 
page  110,  "AW  studies  are  utility  studies  or  culture 
studies,  according  to  the  manner  in  which  they  are 
taught ;  "  but  so  much  emphasis  is  laid  upon  the  other 
points  mentioned,  and  so  little  upon  method,  that  one  is 
led  to  believe  that  he  thinks  the  manner  of  teaching  to 
be  of  secondary  importance.  It  is,  perhaps,  not  too 
extreme  to  say,  regarding  college  studies  at  least, 
that  so  far  as  educational  value  goes,  the  manner  of 
teaching  is  of  more  consequence  than  the  subjects 
taught.  It  is  certainly  a  fact  that  a  student  who  devotes 
four  years  to  any  one  language  and  to  the  deductive 
science,  physics,  alone — if  both  are  taught  as  they  are 
taught  by  the  best  professors — will  receive  more  culture, 
in  Professor  Patten's  sense  of  that  word,  than  he  would 
from  Professor  Patten's  ideal  curriculum,  with  its  full 
quota  of  moral  sciences,  if  taught  as  they  have  been 
taught  in  many  of  our  schools  and  colleges,  by  the  poorer 
teachers.  It  seems  necessary  to  make  this  point  em- 
phatic— and  my  difference  from  Professor  Patten's 
opinion  here,  while,  I  think,  great,  is,  after  all,  only 
one  of  emphasis — because  the  other  view,  if  it  were 
believed,  might  well  lead  a  teacher  to  underestimate  his 
influence  if  he  happened  to  be  a  teacher  of  some  of  the 
deductive  sciences,  and  thus  encourage  poorer  teaching 
than  we  have  at  present.  Moreover,  in  selecting  teachers 
for  our  colleges  and  universities,  far  too  little  stress  is 


174  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

laid  upon  this  qualification  of  aptness  for  teaching.  It 
would  be  unfortunate  if  this  tendency  were  to  become 
more  marked.  It  will  be  seen,  too,  that  this  view  of  the 
importance  of  the  manner  of  teaching  a  subject,  if  the 
right  one,  leads  to  entirely  different  results  on  other 
points   from  those  reached  by  Professor  Patten. 

We  learn  from  his  article  that  "  the  educational  value 
of  a  science  depends  upon  the  stage  of  its  progress;" 
and  in  fact  the  main  contention  of  the  article  seems  to  be 
that  we  must  depend  upon  the  sciences  that  are  in  the 
inductive  stage — or,  better  yet,  that  are  in  "  the  transi- 
tional stage  from  induction  to  deduction  " — if  we  wish 
to  get  the  best  educational  results;  because  a  science 
in  that  stage  best  stimulates  the  self-activity  of  the 
student,  and  because  also,  "  the  sciences  that  are  in  a 
stage  of  transition  have  the  great  men  and  the  enthu- 
siastic teachers."  To  take  up  the  second  reason  first, 
I  should  be  willing  to  agree  that  only  investigators  can 
be  or  are  great  teachers;  but  I  can  see  no  reason  for 
thinking  that  when  a  science  has  reached  the  deductive 
stage,  i.e.,  the  stage  of  having  a  number  of  general 
principles  from  which  one  may  reason,  it  still  presents 
no  further  field  for  investigation.  It  may  be  true  that 
investigation  will  take  a  different  character,  and  that 
the  word  investigator  will  have  a  somewhat  different 
meaning.  A  man  who  goes  into  an  unfrequented  reg- 
ion, and  looks  carefully  about  him,  may  perhaps  discover 
a  new  species  of  plant  or  insect,  and  such  a  man  may  be 
called  an  investigator ;  nevertheless,  that  kind  of  inves- 
tigation, if  it  ends  with  that,  will  hardly  justify  us 
in  concluding  that  the  said  investigator  is  to  be  classed 


A  CRITIQUE  OF  EDUCATIONAL  VALUES.       175 

with  Charles  Darwin,  or  that  he  is  a  great  scientist,  or 
will  be  a  great  teacher.  It  is  possibly  true  that  the 
more  completely  developed  sciences  offer  a  narrower 
field  for  investigators  of  that  class;  but  one  of  the 
excellent  qualities  of  good  Mother  Nature  is  that  she 
always  has  new  secrets  in  all  fields  for  man  to  discover ; 
and  it  is  certainly  true  that  advance  in  any  line  simply 
opens  up  wider  vistas  of  unexplored  territory  to  still 
lure  investigators  on.  If  so,  why  should  there  not  be 
great  men  and  great  teachers  in  all  sciences  ?  Do  math- 
ematicians or  physicists  lack  enthusiasm  because  they 
cannot  extend  their  sciences?  This  question  of  great 
men,  too,  in  any  field  of  research,  is  one  of  fact,  upon 
which  there  may  be  varying  opinions.  Professor  Patten 
considers  physics  a  deductive  science  now — ergo,  there 
should  be,  relatively  speaking,  few  great  men  in  physics 
to-day,  and  few  great  teachers.  I  have  to  place  in  op- 
position to  this  the  opinion  of  the  professor  of  physics  in 
one  of  our  great  universities,  who  expresses  himself  on 
this  subject  as  follows :  "  It  is  true  that  the  names 
most  often  met  with  in  the  study  of  science  are  the 
names  of  workers  in  the  inductive  stages  of  the  science, 
because  we  read  principally  of  the  men  who  have 
established  the  general  principles;  but  it  is  not  neces- 
sarily true  that  these  men  are  the  greatest  men  in  that 
particular  science.  In  physics,  some  of  the  very 
greatest  names  are  among  the  men  who  did  not  work 
inductively.  ISTewton,  Cavendish,  Maxwell,  Sir  Wil- 
liam Thomson,  Lord  Eayleigh,  are  men  among  the 
English  physicists  alone  who  rank  among  the  first,  and 
who,  with  the  exception  of  Cavendish,  are  noted  for 


176  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

their  deductive  work  almost  entirely."  Professor  Pat- 
ten might  say  that  it  was  not  so  much  the  method  of 
work  as  the  degree  of  development  of  the  science  that 
brought  about  the  result.  This  point  is  met  as  follows : 
^'  The  last  fifty  years  can  show  the  greatest  list  of 
physicists  of  any  like  period  in  the  history  of  the  science, 
and  it  is  doubtful  if  any  generation  could  compare  with 
the  present  in  its  list  of  great  names  in  the  science. 
True  it  is  that  the  present  generation  is  much  more  cele- 
brated for  its  physicists  than  chemists."  I  have  not 
at  hand  the  opinion  of  an  expert  in  mathematics,  but 
my  own  opinion  would  not  be  materially  different  as 
to  that  science ;  and  it  might  be  fairly  asked — were  it 
likely  to  lead  to  any  definite  conclusion — if  the  great 
names  of  to-day  in  physics  and  mathematics  do  not 
deserve  to  be  placed  on  a  par  with  those  in  biology,  or 
even  in  political  economy  or  history.  If  we  write  the 
names  of  Helmholtz  and  Sylvester  with  those  of  Vir- 
chow  and  Wagner  and  Ranke — to  name  none  of  our 
own  great  men  in  any  of  these  lines — he  will  be  a  bold 
man  who  will  venture  to  place  one  below  the  others. 
Rather  must  we  agree  with  Victor  Hugo  that  among 
geniuses  all  are  equal.  Even  if  I  were  to  attempt  to 
disprove  Professor  Patten's  contention  by  an  appeal  to 
numbers  of  great  men  or  of  great  teachers  in  the  dif- 
ferent sciences,  we  should  doubtless  find  that  no  one 
could  eliminate  the  personal  equation;  we  should  learn 
that  good  men  were  plentiful  in  all  fields,  while  the 
great  men  were  woefully  scarce  in  all.  Each  one  of  us 
knows  best  the  great  men  in  his  own  special  field  of 
labor,  while  because  of  our  famih'arity  :with  the  subject 


A   CRITIQUE  OF  EDUCATIONAL   VALUES,       177 

we  can  also  see  best  the  weaknesses  of  even  the  greatest 
men  in  our  own  field.  And  still  further,  is  there  not 
much  weight  in  Professor  McMurrj's  question :  ''  Is  not 
the  great  teacher  he  who,  after  knowing  his  subject  mat- 
ter well,  directs  his  attention  and  investigations  first  of 
all  to  the  relation  of  this  subject  matter  to  the  minds  of 
his  students;  whose  chief  effort  is  to  fit  or  adapt  the 
material  to  the  growing  mind  in  such  a  way  as  to  make 
it  grow  strong  in  the  best  manner  ?  "  This  is  certainly 
true  in  the  case  of  children,  and  to  a  great  extent  in  that 
of  college  students,  though  with  them,  in  my  judgment, 
the  teacher  should  also  be  a  seeker  after  new  truth  in 
his  own  special  field  of  work. 

The  more  important  point,  however,  and  it  is  per- 
haps the  most  important  one  in  the  whole  article,  is  the 
other  one  touched  upon.  Is  it  true  that  a  science  in  the 
transitional  stage  "  best  stimulates  the  self -activity  of 
the  student,"  and  that  in  consequence  a  science  at  that 
stage  is  best  for  culture  purposes  ?  From  what  has  al- 
ready been  said  it  is  evident  that,  so  far  as  thoroughly 
trained  specialists  are  concerned,  the  field  of  nature  is 
broad  enough  to  offer  the  opportunities  for  new  dis- 
coveries in  all  departments.  So  far  as  college  students 
are  to  be  considered — and  they  are  really  the  ones  in 
question  here,  though  I  can  but  suspect  that  Professor 
Patten  has  at  times  forgotten  this — one  might  perhaps 
grant  that  the  possibility  of  adding  something  really 
new  to  the  sum  of  human  knowledge,  would  serve  as  a 
special  stimulus  to  good  work,  although  I  doubt  if  this 
one  thing  would  ever  make  an  appreciable  difference  in 
the  classroom  or  laboratory. 


178  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

If  this  were  granted,  however,  one  should  ask  if  this 
added  zest  may  not  be  given  at  too  great  a  cost.  The 
question  is  largely  one  of  methods  of  teaching.  I  quite 
agree  with  Professor  Patten  as  to  the  importance  of 
inductive  work  in  science,  in  language,  in  history,  in 
political  economy,  in  all  fields  of  study.  I  fail  to  see, 
however,  any  reason  why  physics  or  grammar  may  not 
be  taught  inductively  as  well  as  botany  or  political 
economy ;  but,  if  so,  it  takes  much  of  the  force  from  his 
argument.  He  well  says  that  "  if  a  science  is  taught  for 
culture,  it  must  be  presented  as  it  was  when  in  a  state 
of  transition  from  the  inductive  to  the  deductive  stage." 
This  seems  to  recognize  that  it  is  well  to  train  students 
in  inductive  reasoning.  The  subjects  are  new  to  the 
students ;  it  rests  with  the  teacher  to  lead  his  pupils  to 
develop  for  themselves  the  general  principles.  If  the 
science  is  a  fully  developed  one,  the  teacher  has  his  choice 
of  a  large  number  of  principles  to  be  developed,  and  may 
select  them  in  the  order  best  suited  to  the  development 
of  the  pupil,  without  in  any  way  lessening  the  real  drill 
that  the  students  will  get  from  making  their  own 
generalizations.  One  may  well  doubt  the  advisability 
of  attempting  to  develop  with  pupils  of  college  grade  a 
generalization  that  the  teacher  has  not  yet  made  for 
himself,  a  process  which  Professor  Patten  would  make 
the  regular  one.  The  loss  from  time  wasted  in  fruitless 
effort — fruitless,  because  the  pupils  would  not  merely 
fail  of  results  that  would  help  the  cause  of  science,  but 
because  they  would  also  be  led  into  discouragements  and 
loose  habits  of  work — ^would  be  more  than  the  gain  in 
added  inspiration  from  the  hope,  a  rather  forlorn  one. 


A  CRITIQUE  OF  EDUCATIONAL   VALUES,       179 

of  the  possible  discovery  of  some  new  law.  For  ad- 
vanced university  students,  who  have  already  had  their 
powers  well  developed  by  a  thorough,  carefully  planned 
course  of  inductive  work  under  a  trained  teacher  who 
had  been  over  the  whole  field  before  them,  the  case  might 
well  be  different.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  however, 
that  our  college  students  are  mere  tyros  in  science,  and 
have  as  yet,  most  of  them,  had  very  little  practice  in 
really  scientific  work  in  any  line. 

One  can  but  feel  in  reading  his  article  that  Prof- 
essor Patten  has  seen  some  good  teaching  in  political 
economy — his  own  students  would  doubtless  testify  to 
the  truth  of  this  supposition — ^but  some  very  poor  teach- 
ing in  geometry  and  physics.  He  is  certainly  unjust 
toward  much  of  the  work  that  is  done  in  our  schools  and 
colleges.  He  says  that  geometry  "  is  always  presented 
in  its  present  complete  form."  He  thinks  that  it  would 
be  better  if  the  student  had  occasionally  to  supply  a 
missing  proposition,  and  asks :  ^^  Would  not  the  effort 
of  the  student  in  endeavoring  to  supply  this  missing 
link  be  of  much  greater  educational  value  to  him  than 
the  learning  of  a  dozen  propositions  demonstrated  in  full 
in  his  book  ?  "  Of  course ;  but  as  long  ago  as  when  I  was 
in  college,  the  work  in  geometry  that  we  did  there  was 
nearly  all  of  the  kind  that  he  suggests ;  the  days  of  learn- 
ing by  rote  fully  demonstrated  propositions  had  already 
gone  by,  in  that  college  at  least,  and  now  one  seldom 
finds  such  methods  even  in  our  high  schools.  Our 
later  text-books  are  prepared  with  reference  to  leading 
the  pupils  on  to  what  is  for  them  really  original  work, 
as  much  so  as  any  done  by  Euclid  himself;  and  a  visit 


180  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

to  many  classes  in  geometry  would  readily  convince  one 
that  if  Greek  boys  in  the  days  of  Plato  studied  geometry 
with  more  enthusiasm  than  do  ours,  the  subject  must 
have  been  enchanting.  Political  economy  and  the  moral 
sciences  in  general  may  be  good  to  develop  habits  of 
inductive  reasoning.  Surely  no  one  believes  that  more 
firmly  than  I  do ;  and  yet  I  have  seen  teachers  of  politi- 
cal economy  whose  pupils  were  unable  to  get  any  drill 
of  that  kind,  and  who  found  it  a  *^  dismal  science  '^ 
indeed.     The  teacher  was  at  fault,  not  the  subject. 

Let  me  quote  again  from  the  professor  of  physics 
before  cited,  Professor  Sanford,  of  the  Leland  Stanford 
Jr.,  University,  whom,  as  an  advanced  teacher  of  the 
later  days  who  believes  that  college  students  should  be 
taught  for  culture,  not  merely  for  utility,  I  asked  to 
outline  for  me  briefly  his  aims  and  methods  in  teaching 
physics.     He  says : 

"  There  are  very  many  possible  lines  of  mental  and 
moral  training  to  be  had  from  the  study  of  physics.  In 
general,  I  attempt  to  outline  my  work  so  that  the  pupils 
will  reason  from  concrete  examples  to  general  principles, 
then  deduce  other  concrete  examples  from  these  gen- 
eralizations, and  test  their  deductions  by  experiment. 
To  take  a  single  example.  I  wish  my  pupils  to  study 
the  pendulum.  I  select  the  law  of  the  relation  of  the 
length  to  the  time  of  vibration,  as  one  generalization 
which  I  wish  developed.  Suppose  I  ask  the  following 
questions :  ^  How  long  will  it  take  a  pendulum  two  feet 
long  to  make  ten  vibrations?  one  one  foot  long?  one  six 
inches  long  ? '  etc.  After  a  number  of  experiments  of 
this  kind,  I  ask  them  to  tabulate  their  results  and  state 


A  CRITIQUE  OF  EDUCATIONAL   VALUES.       181 

the  law.  Then  they  are  given  tasks  to  do  and  confirm 
by  experiments ;  e,  g,:  ^  Make  a  pendulum  that  will 
vibrate  three  times  in  two  seconds/  etc.  This  seems  to 
me  to  cover  the  whole  range  of  reasoning.  We  have, 
first,  induction;  second,  hypothesis;  third,  deduction 
from  this  hypothesis ;  and  fourth,  testing  this  deduction, 
and  with  it  the  hypothesis,  by  experiment.  My  aim,  so 
far  as  mental  training  is  concerned,  is  to  give  practice  in 
this  whole  process.  Every  generalization  in  physics 
can  be  used  to  give  just  this  kind  of  training.  Later 
these  general  principles  may  themselves  become  the  in- 
ductive series  for  a  higher  generalization,  and  the 
hypothesis  thus  formed  may  be  used  as  the  major  prem- 
ise in  another  deduction,  this  deduction  tested  experi- 
mentally, etc.  This  seems  to  me  to  cover  the  whole 
ground.  It  cannot  be  covered,  in  this  way,  by  a  science 
which  is  yet  in  its  inductive  stages." 

Did  Archimedes  or  Galileo  get  any  better  training 
from  their  study  of  physics  than  do  young  men  of  to-day 
from  this,  now  deductive^  science,  if  it  is  taught  in  the 
way  here  suggested  ?  Does  it  not  rather  seem  clear  that 
the  more  nearly  complete  the  science  becomes,  the  better 
adapted  it  is  for  such  thorough  training  work  ?  As  to 
the  interest  such  work  arouses,  I  have  seen  students  in 
high  schools  from  preference  spend  a  good  part  of  their 
play-time  in  the  laboratory.  They  were  hungering  for 
^  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  physics,  and  their  teacher  saw 
to  it  that  they  got  the  knowledge  by  working  it  out 
for  themselves. 

It  seems  also  clear  that  political  economy,  for  ex- 
ample, could  not  now—and  never  can — ^glve  training  in 


182  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

the  whole  process  of  reasoning  in  this  way ;  though,  as  I 
believe,  the  subject  has  other  advantages  that,  with  an 
equally  good  teacher,  fully  counterbalance  this.  Good 
teachers  of  other  sciences  will  so  plan  their  work  as  to 
give  good  results  for  culture;  while  poor  teachers  of 
even  the  moral  sciences  will  make  of  their  subjects  mere 
drudgery  from  which  little  culture  can  be  derived. 
Witness  a  good  part  of  the  teaching  in  history  and 
political  economy  that  our  schools  and  colleges  all  over 
the  country  have  suffered  under.  It  is  encouraging  to 
note  that  there  is  a  genuine  reaction  in  favor  of  a  more 
careful  study  of  the  principles  of  teaching,  that  has 
already  produced  good  results  and  is  destined  to  do  even 
more  in  the  near  future. 

It  is  fair,  however,  to  consider  the  relative  values 
of,  for  example,  political  economy  and  physics,  to  give 
training  in  inductive  reasoning  or  in  the  various  kinds 
of  reasoning  already  mentioned,  when  taught  with  equal 
skill  with  that  purpose  in  view.  For  such  a  question 
the  answer  has  already  been  given  above  in  good  part. 
In  physics,  the  premises  can  be  controlled  almost  abso- 
lutely, nearly  enough  for  practical  purposes,  without  any 
process  of  assuming  a  condition  of  affairs  that  is  not 
known  or  may  not  be  in  fact  produced.  The  premises 
may  be  simple  ones  or  a  simple  series,  as  in  the  example 
given  above,  or  may  be  made  of  great  complexity,  at  the 
will  of  the  teacher,  who  can  adapt  his  work  to  the  needs 
of  the  class. 

In  political  economy  all  the  problems  involve  many 
complex  and  even  variable  premises.  No  problem 
can  be  made  simple,  unless.it  assumes  conditions  not 


A  CRITIQUE  OF  EDUCATIONAL  VALUES.       183 

found  in  society  unmingled  with  other  factors.  So 
far  as  this  one  fact  is  concerned,  it  would  seem  that 
physics  is  to  be  preferred;  but  this  brings  me  to  the 
next  most  important  point  in  Professor  Patten's  article, 
the  one  relating  to  the  character  of  the  premises  used  in 
the  different  sciences.  I  have  much  sympathy  with  the 
stand  taken  by  him  regarding  this  point,  for  it  is  one 
that  I  have  often  used  in  discussions  with  teachers  of 
the  natural  sciences  over  the  educational  value  of  their 
special  subjects.  And  yet,  in  part  as  a  result  of  such 
discussions,  I  can  but  feel  that  Professor  Patten  has  too 
narrow  a  view  of  the  question.  ^^  The  habit  of  using 
premises  which  the  student  does  not  question,"  said  he, 
"  creates  a  dogmatic  spirit.  It  dwarfs  his  mind  by 
confining  him  to  that  form  of  logic  which  deals  only 
with  relations  of  premises  to  the  conclusions.  Such 
reasoning  excites  little  interest  or  activity.''  And 
again,  with  much  force,  "  The  study  of  premises,  how- 
ever, is  a  study  of  mankind  and  of  the  laws  of  thinking, 
and  is  a  necessary  condition  to  good  reasoning  upon 
practical  subjects.  The  same  premise  has  a  different 
degree  of  force  upon  minds  in  different  stages  of  devel- 
opment and  in  different  social  environments.  To  ques- 
tion the  premises  from  which  one  reasons,  opens  up  the 
broadest  problems  of  psychology,  and  forces  one  to  ex- 
amine into  the  complicated  phenomena  of  the  society  in 
which  one  lives.  The  feeling,  therefore,  that  his  prem- 
ises are  open  to  discussion,  gives  the  student  much 
greater  incentive  to  accurate  thinking  than  he  would 
have  if  he  were  studying  a  science  with  axiomatic  prem- 
ises."    And  still  again,  ^^  If  a  good  professional  man  is 


184  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

wanted,  let  him  study  deductive  sciences  with  unques- 
tioned premises,  but  beware  of  praising  the  same  course 
of  study  for  the  culture  it  gives."  Now  it  is  doubtless 
true  that  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  judgments  that 
we  have  to  make  in  our  social,  and  even  in  our  business 
life,  are  these  moral  judgments  based  on  premises  that 
are  uncertain,  and  that  have  also  to  be  critically  con- 
sidered; and  it  is  well  for  our  young  people  to  have 
much  practice  in  making  such  judgments  under  the  over- 
sight of  a  cool-headed,  careful  teacher,  who  will  show 
them  how  likely  one  is  to  err  in  such  matters,  and  how 
modest  and  conservative  one  should  always  be. 

But  here  again  we  come  to  the  consideration  of  the 
personal  qualifications  of  the  individual  teacher.  Where 
it  is  impossible  to  bring  one's  opinions  to  the  test  of  ac- 
curate measurement,  where  one's  judgment  is  after  all  a 
matter  of  opinion,  it  is  hard  to  convince  the  fool  that  he 
is  not  a  wise  man.  It  is  in  just  this  field  of  infinite  de- 
bate that  we  find  the  most  foolish  dogmatism.  Let  me 
mention  as  proof  the  attitude  of  many  political  econom- 
ists, many  so-called  statesmen,  nearly  the  entire  popula- 
tion when  it  comes  to  a  question  of  practical  politics,  or 
perhaps  even  worse,  when  the  question  is  one  of  practical 
religion.  Young  people  often  differ  in  judgment  on  a 
question  of  natural  science;  but  a  measuring-rod  or  a 
balance,  a  microscope  or  a  retort,  forbids  them  to  dog- 
matize. It  is  an  easy  matter  for  a  teacher  of  science 
who  has  a  conceited,  stubborn  pupil  with  a  wrong 
idea  that  he  is  tenaciously  holding,  to  refer  him  to  a 
simple  experiment  and  let  Nature,  who  has  no  nonsense 
in  her  methods  of  workin^^,  show  him  his  foolishness. 
I  have  known  teachers  of  science  more  than  once  to 


A  CRITIQUE  OF  EDUCATIONAL  VALUES.       185 

teach  in  this  way  at  least  an  apparent  modesty  to 
boys  who  were  disposed  to  be  dogmatic.  But  when 
the  question  is  one  of  literary  taste,  or  a  complicated 
social  one,  like  that  of  pauperism,  or  an  economic 
one  like  that  of  protection,  if  you  please,  much 
more  judgment  and  skill  are  required  in  the  teacher. 
The  pupiFs  opinion  can  be  controverted  only  by  argu- 
ment, and  that  combined  with  wise  handling  of  his 
individual  prejudices.  If  he  does  not  absorb  from  his 
teacher's  own  wise  spirit  the  habit  of  tolerance,  it  can- 
not be  forced  upon  him,  as  in  the  natural  sciences.  The 
only  test  is  that  of  a  majority  vote  of  those  who  are 
called  authorities ;  and  he  has  clearly  a  right  to  his  own 
opinion  as  against  these.  The  teacher  may  say,  as  I 
knew  one  college  professor  to  do :  ^^  Do  callow  youths 
like  you  venture  to  set  up  your  judgment  in  literary 
matters  in  opposition  to  that  of  your  text-book  author, 
a  recognized  authority  in  literature  ? ''  but  such  a  ques- 
tion is  not  likely  to  discourage  dogmatism  in  pupils. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  many  of  the  college  students  of  even 
our  day  take  the  opinion  of  their  professors  in  political 
economy  and  history  and  literature  without  any  further 
question;  and  nothing  could  more  surely  lead  to  dog- 
matism. Of  course,  I  am  not  forgetting  that  many 
teachers  are  too  wise  to  permit  their  pupils  to  adopt 
opinions  that  they  have  not  clearly  thought  out  for 
themselves,  and  that  some  pupils  learn  fully  to  appre- 
ciate the  many  sources  of  error  in  reasoning  on  social 
questions;  but  it  still  remains  true  that  more  skill  in 
the  teacher  is  required  to  prevent  pupils  from  falling 
into  dogmatic  ways,  when  the  subject  taught  is  one  in 


186  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

which  the  conclusion  of  the  student  cannot  be  put  to  an 
absolute  test  of  experiment  or  proof.  Tho  the  ques- 
tion is  not  raised  in  Professor  Patten's  article,  I  still 
wish  to  call  attention  to  President  Walker's  vigorous 
comparison  of  the  moral  effects  of  the  two  classes  of  sub- 
jects in  the  October  number  of  the  Review.  I  cannot 
but  think  that  with  first-class  teachers  in  both  lines,  the 
philosophical  studies  would  not  only  not  appear  to  a  dis- 
advantage in  the  comparison,  but  rather  the  reverse. 
With  poor  teachers  in  both,  I  fully  agree  with  President 
Walker. 

Professor  Patten  is  right  in  dwelling  upon  the  ad- 
vantages that  arise  from  the  study  of  the  complex 
premises  found  in  social  questions  of  all  kinds.  As  has 
been  seen,  I  think  that  he  is  wrong  in  thinking  that  in 
themselves  they  check  the  spirit  of  dogmatism.  I  doubt 
also  if  they  lead  to  more  "  accurate  thinking,"  as  he 
suggests,  than  do  subjects  with  what  he  calls  "  axiomatic 
premises." 

We  need  further  to  ask — thinking  about  what  ?  The 
economist  probably  reasons  more  accurately  on  social 
questions  than  does  the  physicist,  not  because  his  habits 
of  thinking  are  better,  but  because  he  is  more  familiar 
with  his  premises.  On  questions  of  physics,  we  should 
find  the  physicist  the  more  accurate  reasoner,  even 
where  the  problem  were  well  within  the  comprehension 
of  the  economist,  and  from  the  same  reason.  As  to 
which  will  train  to  more  accurate  habits — while  from 
the  habit  of  dealing  with  complicated  premises,  the 
economists  will  possibly  more  often  ask:  Is  there  any 
other  possible  factor?  before  he  sees  proof  of  it,  still 


A  CRITIQUE  OF  EDUCATIONAL   VALUES.       187 

this  is  not  all  that  is  needed  for  accurate  reasoning. 
You  must  also  be  sure  of  your  premises,  and  in  physics, 
no  result  of  value  can  ever  be  reached  without  careful 
measurement  and  accurate  knowledge  of  these  premises. 
You  are  always  informed  when  you  have  been  care- 
less regarding  your  knowledge  of  premises;  Nature 
never  forgets  to  call  you  to  account.  On  the  other 
hand,  while  you  are  equally  sure  to  get  wrong  results 
in  political  economy  if  your  knowledge  of  your  prem- 
ises is  faulty,  you  may  never  find  it  out.  Think  of 
the  economists  whose  errors  may  not  be  discovered 
for  generations  after  they  have  ceased  to  reason.  So 
far  as  "  accurate  thinking  "  is  concerned,  the  economists 
might  well  sigh  for  kindly  but  severe  K'ature  to  set  them 
on  the  track  of  their  errors,  as  she  does  the  physicists. 

The  advantages  that  the  social  sciences  as  culture 
studies  possess  over  physics,  astronomy,  etc.,  are  not, 
in  my  judgment,  those  that  have  been  cited  by  Professor 
Patten.  It  is  not  that  they  are  inductive  or  transi- 
tional, nor  that  they  train  better  to  "  accurate  thinking  " 
because  of  their  complexity.  Professor  Patten  touches 
it  more  nearly  when  he  says  as  quoted :  "  The  study  of 
premises  is  a  study  of  mankind,"  etc.  ISTot  the  study 
of  all  premises  was  in  his  mind  when  he  wrote  that  and 
added,  "  To  question  the  premises  from  which  one 
reasons  opens  up  the  broadest  questions  of  psychology 
and  forces  one  to  examine  into  the  complicated  phe- 
nomena of  the  society  in  which  one  lives,"  but  the  study 
of  the  premises  found  in  social  problems.  The  knowl- 
edge of  these  subjects  is  that  which  comes  nearest  to  our 
hearts  and  lives,  is  that  which  makes  us  or  may  make  us 


188  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

useful  or  injurious  to  ourselves  and  to  society ;  and  the 
dealing  with  such  subjects  tends  especially  to  broaden 
our  sympathies  and  show  us  how  to  deal  wisely  and 
charitably  with  our  fellow-men. 

Given  two  boys  of  equal  ability  with  equally  skilled 
teachers,  one  of  whom  becomes  a  physicist  with  electric- 
ity a  specialty,  the  other  an  economist  with  pauperism 
and  crime  his  specialty,  I  should  not  expect  to  see  the 
latter  become  the  more  accurate  reasoner,  nor  the  more 
honest  and  truth-loving,  generally  speaking.  Quite 
possibly  he  would  do  no  more  for  the  poor  in  the  long 
run  than  the  other  by  his  inventions  would  do  indirectly ; 
but  I  should  expect  to  see  him  a  man  of  more  sensitive, 
though  better-tempered  feeling  for  the  sufferings  of 
others,  and  one  also  whose  knowledge  would  keep  him 
from  much  unwise  action  in-  social  matters  into  which 
the  physicist  might  well  be  led.  I  should  expect  to  find 
him  a  man  better  fitted  to  meet  and  manage  wisely  social 
evils,  or  for  that  matter,  an  excited  crowd  (if  he  had 
studied  his  subject  at  first  hand,  as  he  should),  and  one 
to  whom  legislators  and  philanthropists  would  more 
readily  turn.  He  might  do  society  no  more  good  than 
the  other;  but  the  good  that  he  did  would  probably  be 
more  direct  and  more  readily  seen.  Surely  these  ad- 
vantages of  a  moral  nature  in  educational  value  may  be 
granted  to  the  social  sciences.  So,  too,  the  moral 
sciences,  including  history,  language  and  literature,  are 
doubtless  better  adapted  for  training  the  imagination 
along  special  lines,  for  cultivating  the  aesthetic  tastes, 
and  for  inspiring  a  love  for  the  beautiful  and  good  in 
literature  and  art,  than  are  the  natural  sciences.     They 


A  CRITIQUE  OF  EDUCATIONAL   VALUES,       189 

are  better  for  many  purposes ;  but  we  need  both  classes 
of  studies  for  culture  as  well  as  for  civilization,  and  our 
colleges  should  have  both  fully  represented  in  their 
curricula. 

In  one  of  the  latest  paragraphs  of  his  article  Pro- 
fessor Patten,  I  conjecture,  does  not  intend  to  be  taken 
quite  literally.  He  says :  "  The  college  course  must 
select  only  those  problems  in  each  science  that  have  a 
high  educational  value,  and  study  them  for  this  value, 
and  not  for  their  utility  as  parts  of  a  connected  whole. 
In  this  way  all  the  sciences  can  have  an  adequate  repre- 
sentation in  the  college  curriculum  without  that  crowd- 
ing which  at  present  is  so  much  to  be  regretted."  The 
expression  "  all  the  sciences  "  is  very  comprehensive, 
and  even  if  we  were  to  take  it  in  the  narrow  meaning  of 
all  those  sciences  which  are  commonly  represented  in 
our  colleges  and  universities,  we  shall  still  find  it  too 
broad.  I  wish  to  state  again  my  agreement  with  Pro- 
fessor Patten's  desire  to  teach  science  with  reference  to 
its  culture  value,  and,  where  the  distinction  can  be  made, 
to  omit  the  parts  or  problems  that  do  not  tend  directly 
toward  culture.  But  if  I  do  not  misunderstand  the 
spirit  of  the  passage  just  quoted,  I  must  still  dissent 
emphatically.  It  has  seemed  to  many  teachers  of  late 
years  that  the  short  courses  in  many  subjects  taught  in 
our  colleges — whatever  the  purpose  may  have  been — 
are,  relatively  speaking,  of  little  value  for  mental  culture 
from  their  very  shortness.  Of  what  use  for  culture, 
relatively  speaking,  is  a  course  in  botany,  or  physics, 
or  history,  or  German,  or  Greek,  or  political  economy, 
if  it  lasts  only  twelve  weeks,  compared  with  one  of  two 


190  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS, 

or  three  years  ?  I  do  not  wish  to  be  understood  as  say-  \ 
ing  that  we  should  have  no  short  courses  in  our  colleges.  ! 
I  think  there  is  culture  in  even  a  little  knowledge,  and  ' 
that  it  is  desirable  to  know  at  least  a  little  of  many  | 
things.  Furthermore,  if  one  has  a  thorough  understand-  \ 
ing  of  some  one  subject,  a  good  teacher  can  give  him  a  | 
fair  idea  of  the  general  nature  of  another  subject  in  a  . 
short  course.  But  if  I  may  quote  again  from  Professor  i 
Patten's  own  admirable  words  on  educational  values,  I  j 
would  say  that  a  twelve  weeks'  course,  however  wisely  i 
the  problems  may  be  selected,  can  give  one  very  little  i 
of  the  "  faculty  to  do  other  work  of  a  like  character,"  | 
very  little  ^'  added  confidence  in  his  intellect,"  very  \ 
little  "  keener  appreciation  of  his  moral  obligations,"  or,  i 
to  quote  again  Professor  McMurry,  very  little  "  lively,  ; 
permanent  interest  in  the  subject " — a  very  important  i 
matter  for  culture.  Not  merely  discipline  is  needed,  | 
but  also  mental  activity,  and  only  permanent  interest  i 
in  some  subject  will  develop  this.  Here,  too,  may  be  | 
mentioned  President  Walker's  happy  citation  of  law,  i 
medical,  and  engineering  students,  as  showing  more  I 
interest,  and  hence  giving  more  attention  and  earnest-  '< 
ness  to  their  work.  The  educational  value  of  this  must  ■ 
not  be  underestimated.  To  get  any  of  these  effects  in  j 
any  noteworthy  degree,  one  needs  to  devote  a  good  deal  \ 
of  time  to  some  one  specific  subject ;  not  with  the  idea  j 
of  making  one's  self  an  expert  workman  for  pecuniary  ] 
ends — for  I  should  omit  the  topics  that  had  no  special  ; 
developing  power,  if  they  are  to  be  found — but  because  ■ 
every  science  begins  with  the  alphabet,  so  to  speak,  in  ; 
the  learning  of  which  for  every  college  student  there  is  ! 


A  CRITIQUE  OF  EDUCATIONAL  VALUES.       191 

relatively  little  training  of  the  judgment,  and  because 
the  best  training  and  the  greatest  interest  come  after  the 
student  begins  to  feel  in  some  slight  degree  the  sense  of 
mastery  and  confidence  in  his  own  power  to  go  ahead 
independently.  These  beginnings,  which  I  have  called 
the  alphabet,  of  course  differ  much  in  character  and 
importance  in  the  different  sciences.  In  one  it  is  the 
technique  of  the  microscope,  in  another  the  mere  hand- 
ling of  the  laboratory  apparatus,  in  a  third  the  clearing 
up  of  definitions,  etc. 

The  old  classical  curriculum  was,  after  all,  formed 
largely  on  the  right  plan.  There  the  classics  were  so 
studied  that,  if  they  were  even  fairly  taught,  the 
student  began  to  get  the  best  of  discipline  from  them. 
The  same  thing  is  true  of  mathematics.  And  the  two 
subjects  were  so  diverse  in  character  that  the  mental 
discipline  was  of  a  fairly  diversified  kind.  The  weak 
point  in  it  was  that  it  did  not  recognize  the  differences 
in  individual  aptitudes;  and  this,  too,  is  the  weak 
point  at  bottom  of  Professor  Patten's  plan.  He  seems 
to  overestimate  relatively  the  value  of  inductive  reason- 
ing along  certain  lines,  as  if  all  students  needed  the 
same  thing.  Each  student  needs  for  his  mental  de- 
velopment a  thorough  course  of  training  in  some  one 
line,  continued  until  he  has  learned  to  know  what  it  is  to 
do  some  really  thorough  work  on  his  own  account.  I 
omit  here  any  special  consideration  of  studies  that  are 
especially  tools,  such  as  language,  elementary  mathe- 
matics, etc.,  that  all  students  must  have  before  they  can 
do  thorough,  independent  work  in  anything.  Until  that 
stage  of  independent  work  is  reached,  the  "  budding 


192  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

man/'  to  use  Professor  Patten's  expression,  has  not  yet 
bloomed.  He  is  not  yet  in  a  condition  to  bear  fruit. 
He  need  not  have  become  a  specialist  in  the  sense  of 
having  set  out  on  a  life  career,  as  is  implied  in  the 
professional  and  purely  university  work;  but  he  must 
have  learned  how  to  handle  himself  in  some  independent 
work,  or  he  is  not  yet  a  man,  and  has  not  yet  reached  the 
development  that  is  or  ought  to  be  implied  in  a  college 
bachelor's  degree,  nor  has  he  the  permanent  interest  in 
intellectual  work  that  is  essential  to  mental  activity, 
thoughtfulness,  growth. 

The  old  classical  course  gave  this  power  to  all  those 
whose  natural  aptitudes  led  them  toward  language,  or 
mathematics,  or  grammar.  They  were  able  to  do  in- 
dependent work  in  any  of  these  lines.  The  students 
whose  natural  aptitudes  were  of  another  kind  fared 
badly.  Let  us  frankly  recognize  the  fact  that  the  old 
course  was  an  admirably  planned  course,  in  the  main 
of  the  modern  kind,  for  those  who  wished  to  develop 
their  powers  along  the  line  of  classical  study.  It  is 
an  excellent  special  course;  but  it  is  a  special  course 
in  language,  and  no  more  of  a  general  culture  course 
than  one  planned  with  literature  or  physics  as  its  back- 
bone, though  possibly  the  former  is  adapted  to  the  needs 
of  a  greater  number  of  students  than  the  latter  would  be. 
The  modern  curriculum  differs  from  the  classical,  not 
in  picking  out  small  parts  from  all  the  studies — for 
even  if  we  were  to  try  to  do  that  by  selecting  the  cul- 
ture parts,  as  Professor  Patten  suggests,  we  should 
find  it  an  impossibility  to  give  thorough  culture,  unless 
we  left  enough  of  some  one  of  them  to  give  a  student  the 


A  CRITIQUE  OF  EDUCATIONAL   VALUES,       I93 

power  of  going  ahead  independently  in  that  line,  and 
this  requires  years  of  work — but  in  so  arranging  the  cur- 
riculum that  the  student  may  obtain  this  special  drill  in 
the  line  of  his  aptitudes ;  so  that  from  it  he  will  get  the 
best  culture.  One  cannot  be  master  of  himself  until 
he  is  nearly  enough  master  of  some  one  subject,  be  it 
theology  or  Greek,  physics  or  political  economy,  car- 
pentry or  blacksmithing,  or  mule-driving,  to  work  in  it 
to  some  advantage  without  a  master.  The  sense  of  self- 
mastery  does  not  come  without  this  sense  of  independent 
power  in  work. 

Again  without  fairly  thorough  knowledge  of  some  one 
subject,  that  essential  element  in  all  culture,  that  almost 
indispensable  condition  of  successful  growth,  the  power 
to  get  a  definite  outline  for  one's  own  ignorance  is  want- 
ing. Until  one  has  a  good  knowledge  of  some  one  sub- 
ject, he  has  no  conception  of  the  extent  of  his  ignorance 
on  others.  A  smattering  of  many  subjects  is  apt  to 
lead  one  to  think  that  he  has  a  fairly  complete  knowl- 
edge of  all.  The  graduates  of  many  of  our  "  mush- 
room normals "  of  the  West,  who  have  ^'  finished '' 
zoology,  botany,  political  economy,  etc.,  are  pitiful 
examples  of  the  effect  of  courses  that  fail  to  give  a 
fairly  thorough  mastery  of  some  one  subject,  although 
bad  teaching  is  partly  responsible  for  this  result. 

The  general  effect  of  Professor  Patten's  article  is  to 
lead  one  to  think  that  he  has  a  too  narrow  conception  of 
the  meaning  of  that  somewhat  indefinite  word  culture, 
though  his  verbal  definition  of  it  seems  broad  enough. 
The  insistence  upon  the  inductive  studies,  upon  the 
moral  sciences,  etc.,  leads  one  to  believe  that  in  his  mind 


194  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

culture  means  the  same  thing  for  all  persons ;  and  especi- 
ally, so  far  as  intellectual  processes  are  concerned,  does 
it  mean  for  him  the  power  to  reason  inductively  and 
with  accurate  judgment  regarding  the  real  nature  of 
social  conditions.  Ought  we  not  to  recognize  more  fully 
the  great  variety  of  human  gifts  and  aptitudes,  the  great 
range  of  human  interests  ?  After  the  man  has  gained 
the  one  or  two  essential  moral  qualities  that  belong  to  all 
true  manhood  and  womanhood  as  such,  especially  that 
quality  that  Lowell  fitly  calls  "  the  brave  old  wisdom  of 
sincerity,"  and  the  kindliness  of  nature  that  leads  to  true 
courtesy — ^no  one  can  pretend  to  culture  in  a  complete 
sense,  with  the  needs  of  society  as  our  criterion,  who  has 
not  these  qualities — what  more  shall  we  ask,  except  that 
he  have  trained  and  developed  the  natural  powers  that 
he  possesses,  whatever  these  may  be.  Culture  is  not  a 
matter  of  knowledge,  but  of  development;  and  as  one 
man  has  one  gift,  while  another  has  a  vastly  different 
one,  culture  is  as  varied  as  human  nature.  I  write  as  a 
teacher  and  student  of  social  science,  not  with  reference 
to  the  opinions  of  the  "  Four  Hundred  "  regarding  cul- 
ture. 

Recognizing  this  principle,  we  need  to  be  much 
more  guarded  in  our  estimate  of  the  relative  educational 
values  of  the  different  studies.  One  study  will  have  a 
great  educational  value  for  one  student,  while  the  same 
study,  taught  in  the  same  way  by  the  same  teacher,  will 
have  a  much  smaller  educational  value  for  another. 
Professor  Patten  has  recognized  this  principle  in  part 
in  what  he  has  to  say  regarding  the  "  inherited  qualities 
of  the  college  student ;  "  but  I  think  that  all  teachers  of 


A  CRITIQUE  OF  EDUCATIONAL  VALUES.      195 

mathematics  will  agree  that  not  all  pupils  have  inherited 
any  great  aptness  for  mathematics,  while  it  is  equally 
certain  that  some  of  them  have  this  aptitude.  For  one, 
this  study  might  have  little  educational  value ;  for  an- 
other, the  greatest.  I  pass  by  the  question  whether  a 
student  should  study  that  which  is  easy  for  him  or  that 
which  is  difficult.  Either  answer  fits  this  argument. 
Educational  values,  then,  may  not  be  estimated  with 
any  degree  of  accuracy  without  reference  to  both  the 
manner  of  teaching  and  the  individual  aptitude  of  the 
student.  The  ideal  college  curriculum  would  be,  not  a 
fixed  one,  but  one  that  could  be  fitted  to  the  varying 
needs  of  the  individual  students,  so  that  each  one  could 
best  bring  out  what  is  in  him.  I  wish  to  be  understood 
broadly.  While  colleges  are  especially  to  give  intel- 
lectual culture,  we  may  with  propriety  extend  the  word 
to  include  development  in  other  lines.  If  a  man  has 
but  little  aptitude  for  book-learning  or  scholarship  in 
any  line,  as  we  commonly  use  the  word,  but  has  a  gift 
for  wood-craft  or  horse-training,  and  has  developed  his 
powers  to  the  best  advantage,  so  that  he  is  doing  society 
the  best  of  which  he  is  capable,  I  see  no  reason  why  he 
should  not  have  this  culture  recognized.  If  he  has  the 
sincerity  and  courtesy  that  I  spoke  of  before  as  evidence 
of  moral  training,  I  do  not  know  why  he  is  not  the  equal 
in  culture  of  the  man  who  has  spent  the  same  time  and 
mental  energy  and  who  has  attained  the  same  degree  of 
development  in  mathematics. 

The  college  curriculum  should  include  first  those 
studies  that  seem  best  fitted  to  the  mental  development 
of  the  greatest  number  that  will  take  advantage   of 


196  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

i 

them,  and  should  then  be  extended  as  far  to  suit  the  ; 
needs  of  lesser  numbers  as  the  means  of  the  institu-  I 
tion  will  permit.  I  know  of  no  reason  why  it  should  ; 
stop  short  of  teaching  those  whose  best  life-work  lies  J 
in  horse-training  to  develop  their  skill,  their  powers,  ; 
their  natural  endowments  in  this  direction  in  the  ! 
best  possible  way,  provided  the  means  hold  out.  Let  • 
me  not  be  misunderstood  as  advocating  technical  : 
courses  for  merely  technical  purposes  in  a  college  ' 
curriculum.  I  simply  mean  to  make  it  clear  that  the  | 
diversity  of  human  nature  should  be  recognized  as  j 
far  as  is  practicable  in  our  college  courses,  in  order  i 
that  to  each  student  may  be  given  the  best  culture  ^ 
that  he  is  capable  of  receiving.  Further  than  that,  i 
let  us  recognize  the  fact  that  the  educational  value  j 
of  any  study  is  only  relative;  that  no  study  or  \ 
series  of  studies  is  adapted  to  all,  but  that  the  most  ; 
that  we  can  say  is,  that  if  this  study  is  taught  in  ; 
such  a  way,  it  is  adapted  to  develop  certain  named  j 
qualities  in  a  student.  If  then  an  individual  student  \ 
needs  such  a  development,  let  him  take  this  study ;  but  \ 
if  he  needs  another  development,  give  him  another  sub-  \ 
ject  suited  to  his  needs.  Or,  in  many  cases,  it  will  be  ^ 
sufficient  to  have  the  same  subject  taught  in  different  j 
ways  to  meet  different  needs.  But,  let  me  repeat,  the  I 
purpose  of  it  all  is  the  best  development  that  each  stu-  < 
dent  as  an  individual  is  capable  of  receiving.  ] 

So,  too,  we  cannot  well  speak  absolutely  of  quantity  of  ; 
educational  values,  but  rather  of  the  kind  of  educational  | 
value.  We  may  not  say  geometry  has  more  educational  \ 
value  than  political  economy,  or  vice  versa;  though  we  ! 


A  CRITIQUE  OF  EDUCATIONAL  VALUES.      I97 

may  say  geometry  is  better  adapted  for  training  in  ac- 
curate deductive  reasoning  perhaps.  This  might  lead 
us  to  say  also,  in  a  specific  case,  that  geometry  has 
more  educational  value  for  this  boy  than  political  econ- 
omy; while  at  the  same  time,  we  should  probably  be 
compelled  to  say  of  another  boy  in  the  same  college 
that  political  economy  has  more  educational  value  for 
him  than  has  geometry.  Again,  when  we  have  studied 
college  students  with  especial  reference  to  the  kind 
rather  than  the  amount  of  development  that  they  need, 
we  may  say  this  study  has  more  educational  value 
for  American  students  as  a  whole,  because  more  of 
them  need  it,  than  has  that  study.  Our  college  curricula, 
then,  will  first  offer  facilities  for  those  studies  that  will, 
on  this  basis,  as  was  intimated  before,  meet  the  needs  of 
most  students.  When  means  are  small,  if  college  officers 
are  wise,  they  will  not  try  to  offer  a  little  of  everything, 
but,  in  addition  to  the  elementary  courses  that  all  must 
have,  they  will  endeavor  to  make  thorough  those  one  or 
two  courses  that  in  their  territory  are  likely  to  do  the 
most  good.  Students  that  need  different  training  should 
go  to  another  college  that  is  offering  some  other  specially 
strong  course  in  the  line  of  their  needs,  or  to  a  large 
wealthy  one  that  offers  many  such  courses. 

Though  the  reasons  for  my  opinion  are  materially 
different  from  those  given  by  Professor  Patten,  as  has 
been  shown,  I  still  expect  to  see  a  somewhat  similar  evo- 
lution of  the  college  curriculum,  yet  with  an  important 
difference.  The  difference  lies  in  this,  that  instead  of 
'^  the  college  course  "  with  the  moral  sciences  occupy- 
ing a  "prominent  and  perhaps  a  dominant  place,"  I 


198  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

should  rather  speak  of  co-ordinated  college  courses,  in 
more  of  which  the  social  sciences  will  have  a  promi- 
nent, and  often  even  the  dominant  part  than  in  the 
courses  of  the  past.  I  should  not  say  with  him,  "  Com- 
plete courses,  making  the  student  a  master  of  what 
he  studies,  must  be  given  only  in  graduate  work,"  un- 
less by  "  complete  course  "  is  meant  a  specialty  which 
one  expects  to  make  his  life-work,  and  not  then  if  it 
be  one  that  has  equal  value  in  developing  the  stu- 
dent's powers.  I  rather  believe,  for  the  reasons  already 
given,  that  every  college  degree  should  signify  that 
its  holder  has  had  in  at  least  one  subject  a  training 
so  thorough  and  complete  as  to  arouse  in  him  a  perma- 
nent interest  and  make  him  capable  of  going  ahead  into 
independent  work  in  that  line  with  a  reasonable  degree 
of  certainty  that  fruitful  results  will  follow. 

I  agree  with  him  that  the  social  sciences  form,  for 
many,  and  an  increasing  number,  "  an  ideal  group." 
While  mathematics,  the  languages,  and  the  natural 
sciences  will  always  have  their  place,  and  that  a  large 
one,  in  the  college  curriculum,  I  think  that  as  society  in- 
creases in  complexity,  and  also  in  refinement  and  right- 
eousness, many  more  students  than  at  present  will  find 
their  delight  and  their  development  in  the  study  of 
those  social  sciences  that  deal,  perhaps,  more  directly 
with  all  that  is  highest  and  best  in  man  and  society. 


VIII. 

POLICY  OF  THE  STATE  TOWARD 
EDUCATION.* 

"  No  one  will  doubt  that  the  legislator  should  direct  his  atten- 
tion above  all  to  the  education  of  youth,  or  that  the  neglect  of 
education  does  harm  to  states.  The  citizen  should  be  moulded  to 
suit  the  form  of  government  under  which  he  lives." — Aristotle, 

Some  little  time  ago  we  had  the  pleasure  at  Cornell 
"university  of  listening  to  an  address  by  Mr.  Booker  T, 
Washington,  principal  of  the  Tuskegee  industrial  insti- 
tute in  Alabama.  Mr.  Washington  is  perhaps  doing 
more  for  the  education  of  the  colored  people  and  the 
development  of  industrial  interests  at  the  South  than 
any  other  man  in  the  country.  He  is  one  of  the 
great  educators.  He  told  us  that  when  colored  young 
men  and  women  had  come  to  his  school,  and  were  sur- 
rounded by  its  influences  for  a  year  or  two,  learning 
what  it  was  to  be  clean  and  to  respect  cleanliness  and 
decency,  their  lives  were  so  changed  that  they  influenced 
others.  When  these  graduates  went  back  to  their  own 
home  districts  where  there  were  often  nothing  but  one- 
room  cabins — large  families  living  in  this  one  room- 
where  all  members  of  the  community  were  deeply  in 

*  Impromptu  discussion  at  University  Convocation,  Albany, 
July  5  1894. 

199 


200  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

debt  and  oppressed  by  the  mortgage  system  that  claimed 
their  crops  before  they  were  grown,  the  conditions 
seemed  so  desperate  that  nothing  apparently  could  re- 
generate them.  Yet  frequently  one  girl  school-teacher, 
preaching  cleanliness  by  example  and  precept  through 
the  year,  encouraging  the  poor  negroes  to  pay  off  their 
mortgages  as  rapidly  as  they  could  and  to  build  two- 
room  cottages,  would  succeed  in  three  or  four  years  in 
transforming  the  whole  community. 

The  problem  was  simply  this:  to  put  better  ideals 
into  the  minds  of  the  negroes,  to  raise  their  standard  of 
life.  The  economic  problem  that  is  involved  in  the  rail- 
road strike  that  is  on  to-day  in  the  West  is  also  a  ques- 
tion of  the  standard  of  life,  and  of  the  elevation  of  that 
standard  among  the  working  people  of  the  country. 
There  is  practically  unanimous  agreement  among  lead- 
ing economists  of  this  country  and  of  the  old  world,  that 
the  one  influence,  which  more  than  anything  else  tends 
to  raise  the  wages  of  labor  and  to  harmonize  the  differ- 
ent classes  of  society  is  the  elevation  of  the  standard  of 
life.  When  children  in  the  Northern  states  have  spent 
half  their  time  for  200  days  in  the  year  in  clean  school 
buildings  surrounded  by  the  elevating  influence  of  in- 
telligent teachers;  when  they  are  taught  that  there  is 
something  better  than  gaining  a  few  cents  or  a  few  dol- 
lars to  spend  for  gratification  of  sensuous  appetite; 
when  they  have  been  trained  in  this  way  for  eight  or 
ten  years  for  half  the  days  in  the  year,  they  do  not  for- 
get the  influence  of  these  lessons  afterward  when  they 
become  wage-earning  men  and  women,  though  the  spe- 
cific bits  of  information  may  have  been  forgotten.    They 


POLICY  OF  THE  STATE  TOWARD  EDUCATION.  201 

will  not  feel  that  the  wages  they  earn  must  go  for  the 
gratification  of  the  lower  appetites ;  but  they  will  have 
the  higher  and  better  ideals  that  will  enable  them  to 
spend  their  money  more  wisely,  to  elevate  their  stand- 
ard of  life  and  consequently  to  raise  their  wages  as  they 
ought  to  be  raised. 

More  than  any  other  one  influence  toward  bringing 
about  harmony  in  the  economic  conditions  of  society  is 
bound  to  be  the  elevation  of  the  standard  of  living ;  and 
the  opinion  of  President  Andrews  of  Brown  university 
for  one,  as  well  as  that  of  many  other  thinkers,  is  that  no 
other  one  influence  in  this  country  can  be  so  powerful  to- 
ward raising  the  standard  of  life  as  are  the  common 
schools.  It  has  just  been  said  that  the  faults  in  our  com- 
mon schools  at  present  are  due  very  largely,  almost 
solely,  perhaps,  to  the  standard  of  life  or  to  the  standard 
of  education  held  by  the  patrons  of  our  common  schools. 
What  the  common  schools  ought  to  be  in  order  to  raise 
this  standard,  the  patrons  of  our  common  schools  will 
find  out  better  from  the  high  schools  and  the  colleges 
than  in  any  other  way.  All  our  country  communities 
need  the  elevation  that  comes  from  graduates  of  col- 
leges and  higher  schools. 

But  another  influence,  and  an  influence  that  teaches 
much  more  directly  politics  and  the  principles  which 
lead  to  improvement,  economic  and  political,  may  come 
in  part  from  the  teaching  in  the  common  schools,  though 
more  particularly  from  the  teaching  of  the  higher 
schools.  What  we  need  in  our  voters,  and  in  all  our 
citizens,  more  than  any  other  one  mental  habit  at  the 
present  day  is  the  spirit  of  thoughtfulness,  the  habit  o£ 


202  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

independent  judgment.  Pupils  in  our  common  schools 
of  primary  grade,  because  of  their  youth  cannot  be 
taught  to  any  very  great  extent  to  reason,  to  think  and 
to  judge  independently.  Their  work  in  the  schools 
must  of  necessity  be  the  gaining  of  information,  the  get- 
ting of  tools  for  their  later  work ;  but  the  chief  business 
of  both  high  schools  and  colleges  is  to  teach  students  to 
think,  to  be  independent,  to  judge  for  themselves  on 
questions  of  the  day  and  to  act  as  their  good  judgment 
dictates. 

I  might  speak  especially  of  the  teaching  of  political 
economy  that  was  referred  to  so  particularly  this  morn- 
ing by  the  chancellor,  and  to  the  teaching  of  politics  in 
our  colleges;  but  personally  I  regard  that  as  almost  a 
secondary  consideration.  If  a  man  brings  to  the  study 
of  political  questions  an  independent,  critical,  honest 
mind,  he  will  look  at  them  fairly  and  squarely,  judge 
them  independently  and  vote  accordingly. 

I  have  often  asked  politicians,  students  and  thought- 
ful men  in  the  community,  what  proportion  of  our 
voters  act  independently — I  do  not  mean  independent 
of  political  parties — ,  what  proportion  act  thought- 
fully, what  proportion  think  over  the  issues  of  the  day 
and  vote  in  accordance  with  their  own  best  judgment  in- 
stead of  being  swept  along  simply  by  party  passions,  or 
by  getting  their  political  views  from  their  parents  or 
their  associates  ?  You  can  answer  the  question  for  your- 
selves. In  most  cases  I  have  had  the  answer  that  not 
ten  per  cent  act  independently  in  voting  on  the  questions 
of  the  day. 

We  inherit  our  politics.    We  gather  our  politics  from 


POLICY  OF  THE  STATE  TOWARD  EDUCATION.   203 

our  associations,  or  are  forced  into  them  bj  the  necessi- 
ties of  the  case,  owing  to  our  strict  party  organizations. 
If  our  higher  schools  develop  independent  characters, 
they  will  do  much  toward  solving  our  political  ques- 
tions. Please  understand  that  I  am  not  advocating  mug- 
wumpism  in  distinction  from  party  allegiance.  I  be- 
lieve that  we  need  political  parties  and  that  the  greater 
part  of  our  voters  will  find  it  best  to  belong  to  a  politi- 
cal party  and  to  act  in  accordance  with  this  party ;  but 
it  is  also  best  that  our  politicians  (all  of  us  voters, 
because  we  ought  all  to  be  politicians)  should  do  the 
thinking  for  our  parties  instead  of  letting  the  parties 
do  our  thinking  for  us.  When  the  newspapers  and 
leaders  of  public  opinion  in  the  communities  cease  to 
do  all  the  thinking  for  the  parties,  and  the  individual 
voters  do  their  share,  we  shall  have  less  trouble  with  our 
politics. 

Our  politicians  also,  many  of  whom  are  not  college 
men,  should  study  economics  and  the  science  of  politics 
somewhat  more  than  they  now  do.  For  example,  it  is 
the  opinion  of  all  thinkers  on  the  subject  that  there 
could  hardly  be  more  unjust  tax  laws  than  those  of  this 
country ;  and  this  is  simply  one  example.  If  one  reads 
the  debates  and  discussions  on  the  economic  and  politi- 
cal questions  of  the  day  as  they  are  found  in  the  reports 
of  Congress  and  of  our  state  legislatures,  he  will  likely 
come  to  the  opinion  that  our  legislators  are  partisans 
first,  patriots  second,  and  economists  and  thinking  men 
last.  Our  politicians  are  not  to  blame  for  this.  We  are 
to  blame  for  it  ourselves.  It  is  the  citizens  who  force 
our  legislators  to  become  partisans  first  and  statesmen 


204  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

second.  When  we  become  independent  enough  in  our 
judgment  to  let  ourselves  be  swayed  by  thought  instead 
of  by  partisan  feeling,  our  legislators  will  be  only  too 
glad  to  do  as  we  would  like  to  have  them  in  that  respect. 
We  ourselves  are,  or  should  be,  the  dictators.  And  we 
should  use  our  schools  to  make  thoughtful  citizens. 

The  question  has  been  discussed  whether  it  is  right  or 
wise  for  the  state  to  support  universities.  It  is  asked, 
too,  whether  it  is  American  to  support  universities,  or 
whether  such  support  is  paternalism.  To  one  who  has 
received  all  his  schooling  from  public  elementary  and 
high  schools  and  state  universities,  the  question  seems 
absurd.  It  seems  almost  ridiculous  that  in  the  state  of 
New  York  it  should  be  necessary  to  discuss  this  question 
at  all.  If  we  who  are  the  state  are  unwilling  in  our 
corporate  capacity  to  support  state  universities,  we  must 
rely  on  public  spirited  men  to  endow  universities  for  us. 
It  is  a  good  thing,  of  course,  when  such  men  as  Vassar, 
Cornell  and  others  are  willing  freely  to  grant  the  privi- 
lege of  higher  education  to  our  citizens.  When  they  do 
this  freely  we  cheerfully  and  gladly  accept  the  gifts; 
but  when  we  put  ourselves  in  a  position  to  depend  on 
such  men,  when  we  go  begging  for  such  gifts,  then  we 
are  paupers — and  better  paternalism  than  pauperism. 

But  yet  is  it  paternalism  for  the  state  to  support  uni- 
versities or  the  higher  schools  ?  Do  not  we  the  citizens 
compose  the  state  ?  It  is  certainly  the  theory  of  demo- 
cratic government  that  we  do ;  practically  I  am  inclined 
to  think  in  many  cases  we  do  not.  At  any  rate,  we  do 
not  feel,  as  we  ought,  that  the  state  is  ours.  When  we 
think  of  the  state  we  think  of  it  as  at  Washington  or 


POLICY  OF  THE  STATE  TOWARD  EDUCATION.  205 

Albany.  We  do  not  feel  that  state  institutions  belong  to 
ns  personally.  And  yet  there  are  some  people  who  do 
feel  that  way,  certain  officials  who  have  gifts  of  the 
state  to  grant  their  partisans,  to  the  men  who  helped 
them  get  office.  Those  men  feel  that  the  state  belongs  to 
them ;  and  we  let  it  belong  to  them  instead  of  making  it 
belong  to  ourselves  as  it  should,  instead  of  taking  it  and 
keeping  it  for  ourselves  as  citizens  where  it  of  right  be- 
longs. 

If  we  were  to  make  a  better  and  larger  use  of  the 
state,  if  we  were  to  get  more  benefit  personally  from  the 
state  through  our  schools  and  other  public  means,  we 
should  feel  closer  to  the  state  and  the  state  would  be 
closer  to  us.  We  should  take  better  care  that  state 
affairs  were  managed  as  they  should  be.  This  may 
sound  socialistic;  it  depends  on  what  you  mean  by  so- 
cialism. The  idea  of  socialism  as  set  out  by  many  social- 
istic writers  seems  to  me  absurd.  The  idea  that  by  any 
system  of  legislation  we  can  immediately  modify  and 
materially  improve  the  form  of  society  so  as  really  to 
change  its  nature  and  effects,  is  absurd  on  the  face  of  it. 
The  forces  that  move  society  are  as  sluggish  as  changes 
of  habit,  often  hidden  from  all  but  the  keenest  of  think- 
ing observers.  The  development  of  society  must  be  a 
matter  of  the  slowest  growth,  and  we  cannot  expect  by 
any  system  of  legislation  very  materially  to  modify  the 
form  of  society  as  it  is  at  the  present  day.  We  may  do 
something  by  laws  to  set  at  work  influences  that  will 
slightly  modify  people's  opinions  and  the  economic  con- 
ditions of  society;  and  that  will  possibly  determine  in 
part  the  distribution  of  wealth.     Such  things  as  that 


206  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

we  may  do,  but  to  pass  a  law  at  present  to  put  society  on 
a  socialistic  basis  would  be  absurd ;  for  such  a  law  to  suc- 
ceed would  be  impossible. 

But  we  ought  not  to  be  afraid  to  use  the  powers  of 
the  state  for  the  benefit  of  the  citizens,  so  as  to  enable 
them,  as  Aristotle  says,  "  Not  merely  to  live,  but  to 
live  well ;  "  and  if  we  freely  and  fearlessly  do  what  we 
can  toward  supporting  our  higher  institutions  of  learn- 
ing and  through  them  toward  developing  the  spirit  of  in- 
dependence, the  spirit  of  thoughtfulness  and  responsi- 
bility, we  shall  do  something  that  will  benefit  not  merely 
ourselves,  but  our  posterity  and  the  people  of  other 
nations  as  well. 


IX. 

SCHOOL-BOOK  LEGISLATIOK* 

"  That  education  should  be  regulated  by  law  and  should  be  an 
affair  of  state  is  not  to  be  denied,  but  what  should  be  the  char- 
acter of  this  public  education  and  how  young  persons  should 
be  educated  are  questions  which  remain  to  be  considered."— 
Aristotle. 

In  the  discussion  of  matters  of  public  policy  that  may 
demand  legislation,  it  is  usually  necessary  to  consider 
not  merely  what  may  be  for  the  best  good  of  the  state, 
but  also  what  may  be  possible  under  the  relations  ex- 
isting between  the  chief  political  parties.  'Now  in  no 
state  in  the  Union  has  partisan  feeling  in  politics  more 
to  do  with  legislation  than  in  Indiana.  For  this  reason, 
an  account  of  circumstances  attending  the  drafting 
and  passage  of  the  text-book  bill  in  Indiana  may  serve  as 
a  useful  introduction  to  a  study  of  the  legislation  that 
may  be  desirable  in  other  states.  We  need  to  know  the 
motives  that  influence  legislators  in  practice,  before  we 
can  tell  what  bill  will  be  a  wise  one  to  put  before  any 
given  legislature. 

For  some  two  or  three  sessions  previous  to  that  of 
1889,  certain  members  of  the  legislature,  believing  that 
the  school  text-books  were  costing  more  than  was  neces- 
sary, and  that  a  more  nearly  uniform  series  was  de- 

*  Political  Science  Quarterly,  March,  1891. 
207 


208  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

sirable,  had  introduced  bills  looking  toward  improve- 
ment in  these  respects.  However,  there  was  little  public 
interest  in  the  subject,  and  other  matters  of  legislation, 
particularly  those  of  a  partisan  nature,  were  given  the 
precedence,  so  that  practically  nothing  was  accom- 
plished. Only  the  good  of  the  schools  was  at  stake ;  and 
school  children  and  teachers  have  little  political  in- 
fluence. If  a  body  of  legislators  is  to  be  thoroughly 
aroused,  some  subject  is  desirable  that  will  stir  the  im- 
agination, that  will  furnish  opportunity  for  striking 
metaphors,  and  that  will  appeal  to  the  pockets  of  the 
constituencies.  How  to  secure  prompt  action  on  the 
text-book  question  was,  under  the  circumstances,  a 
problem. 

It  was  solved  largely  through  the  instrumentality  of 
a  man  who  felt  that  he  had  in  past  years  been  wronged 
by  the  agents  of  a  prominent  publishing  firm.  The 
potent  and  at  times  not  wholly  unselfish  interest  of 
school-book  agents  in  our  teachers  and  school  officers  is 
no  secret.  That  the  acquisition  and  loss  of  positions  by 
teachers  and  officers  is  often  determined  by  their  opin- 
ions of  certain  text-books,  is  generally  conceded.  The 
person  referred  to  had  lost  a  lucrative  office,  as  he  be- 
lieved, through  the  influence  of  a  publishing  company  in 
favor  of  his  successful  rival.  Naturally,  the  influence 
of  publishing  houses  over  the  schools  assumed  in  his 
eyes  most  threatening  dimensions.  At  the  same  time, 
the  fact  that  several  firms  had  entered  into  an  agreement 
i  making  competition  less  active  in  the  sale  of  their  books 
became  very  significant.  Patriotism  and  desire  for  re- 
venge worked  side  by  side  in  raising  in  the  ready  press 


SCBOOL-BOOK  LEGISLATION.  209 

the  war-cries :  "  Smash  the  book  trust !  "  '^  Cheap  books 
for  the  children !  "  Stimulated  by  the  prospect  of  parti- 
san advantage,  a  vigorous  agitation  for  reform  began 
in  various  leading  newspapers. 

The  Governor  now  took  up  the  matter.  In  his  next 
message  to  the  legislature,  he  characterized  the  prices 
asked  for  school-books  as  "  exorbitant ''  and  recom- 
mended the  free  text-book  system.  According  to  his  esti- 
mates, the  average  cost  of  school-books  to  each  pupil 
throughout  the  state  was  about  $3.00  per  year.  Under 
the  free  text-book  system  employed  in  Michigan  (in 
but  one  city  at  that  time,  generally  now),  the  cost  was 
estimated  at  50  cents  per  year;  in  Maine,  at  26f  cents; 
in  Vermont,  at  about  33  cents;  in  Wisconsin,  at  about 
one-third  of  the  former  cost.  He  further  stated  that 
experts  and  booksellers  had  informed  him  that  the  prices 
paid  for  school-books  in  Indiana  yielded  from  300  to 
600  per  cent  above  the  average  cost  of  production.  The 
free  text-book  system,  in  his  judgment,  would  reduce 
the  cost  to  a  "  reasonable  price  "  and  lift  these  very 
heavy  burdens  from  the  "  parents  and  guardians." 

Moved  by  the  articles  on  this  subject  that  had  ap- 
peared in  the  papers,  and  by  the  message  of  the  Gover- 
nor, no  less  than  six  members  of  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives and  several  members  of  the  Senate  introduced 
bills  looking  toward  cheaper  text-books.  Various  plans 
were  proposed — from  the  California  system,  which  pro- 
vided for  the  compiling  and  manufacturing  of  text-books 
by  the  state,  to  the  contract  plans  as  found  at  that  time 
in  Minnesota  and  Indiana,  and  to  the  free  text-book  sys- 
tem.    The  Democrats  favored  some  plans  that  would 


210  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

give  a  uniform  series  throughout  the  state ;  whereas  the 
Eepublicans,  adopting  the  idea  expressed  in  the  Gover- 
nor's message,  declared  for  free  text-books,  to  be  fur- 
ished  to  the  pupils  by  the  county  or  the  town.  Thus  the 
matter  was  made  a  party  issue.  Neither  party  dared  re- 
fuse to  "  down  the  trust,''  but  the  Democrats  accused  the 
Eepublicans  of  favoring  a  measure  that  would  only 
strengthen  the  trust.  The  bills  in  the  House  were  re- 
ferred to  the  committee  on  education ;  but  when  the  com- 
mittee made  a  report,  it  was  evident  that  the  various 
opinions  were  extremely  divergent  and  that  no  one  of 
the  bills  already  submitted  could  pass  the  House.  As  a 
compromise,  the  matter  was  referred  to  a  special  com- 
mittee, with  instructions  to  prepare  a  bill  that  should 
harmonize  the  conflicting  opinions  so  far  as  possible. 

It  may  be  worth  while  to  note  the  character  of  the  tasK 
that  the  committee  had  before  it.  As  soon  as  it  seemed 
probable  that  some  system  providing  for  uniform  text- 
books and  possibly  for  state  publication  would  be 
adopted,  the  agents  of  different  publishing  firms  made 
their  appearance,  and  the  members  of  the  legislature 
were  subjected  to  all  the  influences  that  a  well-trained 
lobby  can  bring  to  bear,  in  order  that  the  old  system 
might  be  retained.  The  members  of  the  state  board  of 
education,  while  taking  no  open  part  in  the  discussion 
of  the  question,  were  known  to  be  opposed  to  any  system 
providing  for  state  compilation  and  state  publication  of 
text-books.  The  adoption  of  such  a  system  would 
greatly  increase  their  work,  with  no  adequate  return, 
and  the  results  would  probably  be  unsatisfactory.  At 
any  rate,  it  would  subject  them  to  criticism.    The  Demo- 


SCHOOL-BOOK  LEGISLATION.  211 

crats  had  openly  declared  for  state  uniformity  through 
either  the  California  or  the  contract  plan,  but  many  of 
them  also  really  preferred  a  free  text-book  system. 
Moreover,  of  fifty-seven  Democrats  in  the  House,  seven 
or  nine  were  Eoman  Catholics,  and  it  was  soon  found 
that  these  men  would  agree  to  no  plan  that  involved  any 
increased  taxation.  The  Catholics,  they  said,  were  al- 
ready sufficiently  burdened  with  the  regular  school  taxes 
and  the  support  of  their  parochial  schools.  A  like  feel- 
ing prevailed  among  the  Lutherans,  whom  the  politi- 
cians could  not  afford  to  alienate.  It  was  necessary  to 
draw  a  bill  providing  for  state  uniformity,  and  at  the 
same  time  avoiding  the  objections  of  the  Catholics  and 
Lutherans  to  any  increase  in  taxation.  The  committee 
was  composed  of  four  Democrats  and  three  Eepublicans. 
At  the  first  meeting,  the  chairman,  a  Democrat,  inquired 
if  the  members  of  the  two  parties  could  agree  upon  any 
bill.  He  said  that  the  Democrats  would  insist  upon  state 
uniformity.  Two  of  the  Republican  members  at  once 
declared  that  they  would  support  no  bill  providing  for 
more  than  county  uniformity.  The  third  Republican 
seemed  willing  to  consent  to  state  uniformity.  Two  of 
the  Eepublicans,  therefore,  immediately  withdrew  from 
the  committee  to  prepare  a  minority  report.  The  third 
member,  after  remaining  in  session  with  the  Democrats 
for  one  day,  also  withdrew.  One  of  the  Democratic 
members  was  called  home  by  illness  in  his  family,  and 
the  bill,  substantially  as  passed,  was  prepared  within 
forty-eight  hours  by  the  three  remaining  Democratic 
members.  The  bill  provided  for  state  uniformity  of 
text-books,  which  were  to  be  supplied  by  contract  under 


f^  ^     or  ri-if         X 
i     I  ♦  wf  i\/c  a©  (  rV    1 


212  CITIZEmniP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

specifications  as  to  prices  and  quality.  The  committee 
took  as  the  standard  quality  the  books  most  commonly 
used  in  the  public  schools  of  Indiana;  and  the  prices, 
the  committee  says,  were  taken,  with  some  slight  modi- 
fications, from  a  leading  firm's  special  contract  price- 
list.  A  comparison  with  price-lists,  however,  shows  that 
in  most  cases  the  exchange  price  was  made  the  basis. 
When  the  bill  was  reported  to  the  Democratic  caucus, 
the  following  clause  was  inserted,  to  secure  the  approval 
and  support  of  the  Catholics  and  Lutherans : 

Any  patron  or  pupil  of  any  school  or  schools  other  than  the 
public  school,  and  also  any  child  between  the  ages  of  six  and 
twenty-one  years  of  age,  or  the  parent,  guardian  or  teacher 
of  such  child,  shall  have  the  right  to  purchase  and  receive 
the  books  and  at  the  prices  herein  named,  by  payment  of  the 
cash  price  therefor  to  the  school  superintendent  of  any 
county  in  this  state;  and  it  is  hereby  made  his  duty  to  make 
requisition  on  the  contractor  for  any  and  all  books  so  ordered 
and  paid  for  by  any  such  i)erson  or  i)erson8. 

With  this  amendment  the  bill  was  adopted  by  the  cau- 
cus, reported  back  to  the  House  and  passed,  many  of  the 
Republicans  voting  for  the  bill  when  they  saw  that  its 
passage  was  assured. 

The  papers  had  brought  another  influence  to  bear 
upon  the  representatives  in  favor  of  the  measure.  It 
was  repeatedly  asserted  that  "  the  trust "  was  spending 
money  freely  to  prevent  the  passage  of  the  bill,  and  the 
impression  was  conveyed  that  members  of  the  House 
were  being  approached  or  even  had  been  bribed  by  the 
representatives  of  the  trust.  Threats  had  even  been 
made  by  the  friends  of  the  bill,  so  it  is  asserted,  that  if 


SCHOOL-BOOK  LEGISLATION.  213 

any  Democrats  in  the  House  voted  against  it,  their 
names  would  be  kept  standing  in  the  columns  of  the 
papers  as  avowed  friends  of  the  trust  and  enemies  of 
the  people. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  one  of  the  most  active 
members  of  this  special  committee  personally  preferred 
a  free  text-book  system ;  but  knowing  that,  owing  to  the 
Catholic  opposition,  there  was  no  hope  of  the  passage  of 
such  a  bill,  he  took  part  in  drawing  up  and  passing  the 
present  bill  as  the  best  one  possible  under  the  circum- 
stances. Another  interesting  fact  is  that  the  prices  es- 
tablished by  the  committee  were  made  known  to  the 
special  agent  of  a  large  Eastern  publishing  house,  sent 
to  Indianapolis  expressly  to  look  after  this  law,  and 
were  declared  by  him  to  be  satisfactory  to  his  firm,  who 
would  be  ready,  he  said,  to  bid  for  the  contract.*  After- 
wards, his  firm,  like  the  other  leading  book  firms  of  the 
United  States,  declined  to  bid. 

The  bill  did  not  meet  with  the  approval  of  the  Gover- 
nor. It  was  not  in  accordance  with  his  ideas;  but  at 
the  same  time,  believing  it  to  be  constitutional,  and  be- 
lieving also  that  by  it  the  prices  of  books  would  be  ma- 
terially lowered,  he  suffered  the  bill  to  become  a  law 
without  his  signature,  and  he  has  since  favored  its  thor- 
ough enforcement. 

Soon  after  the  passage  of  the  law,  the  state  board,  in 
accordance  with  its  provisions,  met  and  advertised  for 
bids  to  supply  the  state  with  the  ordinary  text-books,  at 
prices  within  those  set  by  the  law.    No  responsible  book 

*  This  fact  was  obtained  from  a  member  of  the  committee,  who 
had  a  personal  conversation  with  the  agent  on  this  very  point. 


214  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

publisher  put  in  a  genuine  bid,  and  it  seemed  at  first 
that  the  law  would  be  a  dead  letter,  that  the  legislature 
had  made  a  mistake  and  put  the  prices  too  low.  At 
length  some  firms  from  outside  the  state,  thinking  that 
they  could  meet  the  prices  set,  asked  some  leading  capi- 
talists in  the  state  to  go  on  their  bond,  in  order  that 
they  might  bid  if  the  state  board  should  advertise  a 
second  time.  These  capitalists  became  convinced  upon 
investigation  that  good  books  might  be  furnished  at  a 
profit  within  the  prices  mentioned.  Accordingly,  in- 
stead of  signing  bonds  for  foreign  corporations,  they 
formed  a  company,  consisting  of  four  Republicans  and 
four  Democrats,  and  themselves  put  in  a  bid  when  the 
board  advertised  a  second  time.  The  formation  of  the 
company  had  been  so  quietly  effected  that  the  state  board 
knew  nothing  of  it  until  the  bids  were  opened.  The  new 
firm  had  succeeded  in  finding  a  set  of  readers,  a  set  of 
geographies  and  a  set  of  arithmetics  that  met  the  re- 
quirements and  were  accepted  by  the  board.  The  board 
were  unable  to  find,  at  the  prices  named,  a  grammar,  a 
United  States  history,  a  physiology,  or  a  spelling-book 
that  was  up  to  the  standard ;  and  the  appropriation  made 
by  the  legislature  for  advertising  being  exhausted,  these 
books  have  not  yet  been  provided  for  under  the  new  law. 
A  series  of  writing-books  offered  by  another  firm  were 
preferred  by  the  board  to  those  offered  by  the  new  con- 
cern and  were  accepted.  In  accordance  with  the  terms 
of  the  law,  several  manuscripts  were  offered  the  board ; 
but  careful  inquiry  in  Chicago  and  elsewhere  convinced 
the  officials  that  they  would  be  unable  to  contract  for  the 
publication  of  such  manuscripts  within  the  rates  fixed 
in  the  law ;  so  these  were  not  further  considered. 


SCHOOL-BOOK  LEGISLATION.  215 

The  reason  why  the  leading  publishers  of  school-books 
did  not  bid  is  not  entirely  clear.  The  assertion  has  been 
made,  in  their  behalf,  that  the  prices  were  too  low  to 
allow  any  publisher  to  furnish  good  books  and  make  a 
fair  profit.  Again,  it  has  been  said  that  they  could  fur- 
nish them  in  large  quantities  at  the  rates  named  and 
make  living  profits ;  but  that  if  they  furnished  them  in 
Indiana  at  those  rates,  they  would  be  compelled  to  sup- 
ply other  states  at  the  same  rates,  which  would  greatly 
reduce  their  profits.  From  the  fact  that  so  many  of 
them  refused  to  bid  for  this  contract,  after  some  of  their 
agents  had  expressed  an  intention  of  bidding,  it  seems 
probable  that  they  had  at  least  a  confident  hope  of  break- 
ing down  the  law  and  ultimately  forcing  its  repeal. 
Favoring  this  view  is  the  fact  that  a  New  York  firm  put 
in  a  mock  bid,  offering  some  books  that  were  entirely 
out  of  date;  while  a  western  house  sent  a  letter,  taunt- 
ing and,  to  say  the  least,  scornful  in  tone,  in  which  it 
was  asserted  that  no  reliable  firm  would  or  could  bid. 
It  is  noteworthy  that  the  first-mentioned  bid  also  was  a 
mere  taunt — illegal,  as  not  accompanied  by.  a  bond. 
Whatever  the  reason  may  have  been,  the  refusal  of  the 
old  publishers  to  bid  has  resulted  in  giving  to  the  new 
corporation  an  apparently  profitable  contract  for  five 
years. 

In  most  of  the  counties  of  the  state  the  books  were 
introduced  into  the  schools  without  opposition ;  but  some 
of  the  county  superintendents  and  school  trustees  were 
unfriendly  to  the  law  and,  believing  the  books  inferior 
to  those  in  use,  declined  to  order  them  from  the  con- 
tractor.    This  refusal  naturally  resulted  in  lawsuits  in 


216  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

which  the  constitutionality  of  the  law  was  brought  into 
question.  A  case  having  been  carried  up  on  appeal,  the 
law  was  definitely  declared  constitutional  by  the  su- 
preme court  of  the  state.  So  far  as  one  can  see,  the  law 
is  at  present  accepted  throughout  the  state,  and  nearly 
all  those  superintendents  who  were  opposed  to  it  at  first, 
and  who  still  perhaps  consider  it  unwise,  are  neverthe- 
less willing  to  give  it  a  fair  trial,  and  hope  that  the  legis- 
lature will  make  provision  for  the  completion  of  the 
series  of  text-books  required.* 

The  school-book  question  is  still  (1891),  however,  a 
factor  in  politics.  Eesolutions  touching  the  matter  were 
passed  by  both  the  leading  parties  in  the  state  in  their 
last  nominating  conventions.  The  Democratic  resolu- 
tion endorsed  the  law  recently  enacted  and  called  for  ad- 
ditional legislation  to  give  full  effect  to  the  object  of 
this  act  and  to  extend  its  scope.  The  Kepublican  resolu- 
tion demanded  legislation  which  to  free  school-houses 
and  free  tuition  should  add  free  text-books,  but  which 
should  be  so  framed  as  not  to  impair  contracts  to  which 
the  state  was  already  pledged.f 

One  of  the  candidates  in  the  Kepublican  party  for 
the  nomination  of  state  superintendent  was  known  to 
be  hostile  to  the  law.  The  Indianapolis  News,  an  inde- 
pendent paper,  in  its  issue  of  September  5,  1890,  made 
the  following  suggestion : 

We  suggest  to  the  Republican  state  convention  that  it  can- 
not be  too  careful,  in  nominating  a  candidate  for  the  office 

*  A  bill  for  this  purpose  was  passed  Mr.  5,  1891. 

t  Indiana  School  Journal  for  October,  1890,  page  553. 


SCHOOL-BOOK  LEGISLATION.  217 

of  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  to  select  one  free 
from  taint  of  suspicion  of  sympathy  with  the  school-book 
monopoly,  which,  beginning  with  a  corrupt  lobby  to  prevent 
the  passage  of  the  present  law,  has  abated  no  jot  or  tittle  of 
its  purpose  to  cripple  and  kill  the  system  if  possible.  There 
has  been  too  much  aid  and  comfort  in  this  way  from  too 
many  state  officers  to  make  it  anything  short  of  perilous  for 
a  state  nominating  convention  to  fail  to  define  itself  in  a 
positive  manner  on  this  question. 

This  shows  the  feeling  in  the  state.  Some  warnings  were 
given  by  other  independent  papers,  and  some  of  the 
Eepublican  papers  agreed  with  them.  In  the  nomin- 
ating convention  this  candidate  was  beaten  and  another 
nominated,  the  opposition  being  avowedly  on  the  ground 
that  he  was  supported  by  the  friends  of  the  school-book 
firms.  In  the  succeeding  election  the  Democratic  candi- 
date for  superintendent  was  successful,  along  with  the 
rest  of  his  ticket,  the  text-book  question  having  in  his 
case  little  or  no  eifect.  At  the  election  of  township 
trustees,  in  April,  1890,  the  school-book  question  was 
in  many  places  made  an  issue.  The  result  of  the  elec- 
tion was  very  favorable  to  the  Democrats,  the  champions 
of  the  law.  Whether  the  result  were  due  to  this  issue  or 
another,  it  is  a  fact  that  out  of  92  counties  in  the 
state,  the  number  in  which  the  majority  of  the  township 
trustees  was  Democratic  was  changed  by  the  election 
from  40  to  Y4.  So  far  as  one  can  judge  from  conversa- 
tions with  school  men  and  others  upon  the  subject,  the 
people  are  inclined,  for  the  present  at  least,  to  be  satis- 
fied with  the  law  and  to  give  it  a  fair  trial. 

Turning  now  to  the  merits  of  the  case,  let  us  inquire 


218  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

why  the  legislature  should  interfere  in  any  way,  to 
provide  the  children  with  text-books  or  to  attempt  to 
secure  for  them  text-books  at  cheaper  rates.  A  main 
argument  brought  forward  by  the  champions  of  such 
laws  is  that  uniformity  in  text-books  is  yeryjlesirable 
on  the  score  of  convenience  for  school  classification.  In 
every  country  school,  it  is  said,  if  the  children  are  pro- 
vided with  a  variety  of  text-books,  a  correspondingly 
large  number  of  classes  must  be  formed,  thus  making 
the  teacher  much  unnecessary  work.  Again,  in  the 
cities,  the  work  of  grading  the  schools,  and  in  the  coun- 
try the  arrangement  of  courses  of  study,  are  made  very 
difficult.  Besides,  if  there  is  no  state  uniformity  of  text- 
books, pupils  moving  from  one  town  to  another  within 
the  state  must  provide  themselves  with  new  books. 

On  pedagogical  grounds  there  seems  to  be  no  reason 
for  demanding  uniformity  in  text-books  beyond  the 
limits  of  the  same  school — or  possibly,  at  the  very 
farthest,  of  the  schools  in  the  same  town  or  county. 
Most  educators  agree  that  the  matter  of  uniformity  in 
text-books  may  be  carried  too  far,  and  that  one  series  of 
text-books  throughout  the  state  cannot  meet  the  differ- 
ing wants  of  schools  in  unlike  circumstances  and  in  dif- 
ferent localities.  Superintendent  Akres  of  Iowa,  in  his 
report  of  1883-85  (page  55),  gives  the  opinion  of  a  num- 
ber of  leading  educators  on  the  subject.  The  general  be- 
lief seems  to  be  that  with  good  teachers 

a  variety  of  books  and  hence  a  diversity  of  treatment  would 
be  rather  an  advantage  than  a  hindrance  to  good  work.  It 
must  be  admitted,  however,  that  it  is  not  reasonable  to  ex- 


SCHOOL-BOOK  LEGISLATION.  219 

pect  this  of  the  young  teachers,  of  whom  we  employ  so  large 
a  number. 

All  agree,  moreover,  that  state  uniformity  is  too  much 
to  ask ;  that  uniformity  of  text-books  in  the  towns,  or  at 
the  utmost  in  the  counties,  is  enough.  In  some  of  the 
southern  and  western  states,  state  uniformity  is  pre- 
ferred on  account  of  the  ignorance  of  local  boards ;  but 
this  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  pedagogical  view  given. 

Another  reason  urged  in  favor  of  legislation  is  that 
the  text-books  are  so  frequently  changed  that  unneces- 
sary expense  is  incurred.  Many  of  the  states  have 
sought  to  remedy  this  by  the  provision  that  text-books 
shall  not  be  changed  within  a  limited  time — usually 
four,  five,  or  six  years.  Certainly  no  state-publishing 
law  or  state-contract  system  is  necessary  to  prevent 
changes  in  the  text-books.  A  law  on  that  single  point  is 
amply  sufficient. 

The  argument  that  has  proved  most  effective  in  se- 
curing legislation  in  Indiana,  and  also  in  other  states, 
is  that  school-book  publishers  have  combined  into  a 
"  trust,''  and  that  their  power,  exerted  politically,  has 
been  detrimental  to  the  state  so  far  as  the  excellence  of 
its  schools  is  concerned,  and  has  also  resulted  in  exorbi- 
tant prices  for  the  text-books.  A  table,  made  from  re- 
ports by  the  county  superintendents  of  schools  in  Indi- 
ana to  the  committee  on  education  of  the  legislature  of 
1889,  gives  the  names  of  the  publishers  supplying  text- 
books in  the  different  counties  throughout  the  state.*    It 

*See  attomey-generars  brief  in  State  ex  reL  Philip  Snoke  vs, 
Elijah  A.  Blue,  Trustee,  page  40. 


CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS.  ] 

shows  that  more  than  seventy-five  per  cent  of  the  text* : 
books  used  in  the  common  schools,  have  been  supplied  by  , 
a  single  firm.  The  Indianapolis  Sentinel  published  | 
this  table  with  the  following  comment :  I 

It  will  be  seen  that  this  great  firm  supplies  readers  in  j 
sixty-nine  of  the  eighty-four  counties  reported,  arithmetics  ; 
in  eighty-two  out  of  the  eighty-four,  grammars  in  eighty-one, 
geographies  in  sixty-nine,  physiologies  in  forty-seven,  his- 
tories in  fifty-nine  and  spellers  in  seventy.     The  other  trust 
houses  are  allowed  to  sell  a  few  books  in  scattering  localities,  ! 
just  to  "  keep  up  appearances,"  but  not  enough  to  interfere  ! 
with  the    *    *    *    monopoly.  ; 

This  table,  published  in  the  Sentinel,  had  doubtless  \ 
great  influence  with  the  legislature  in  the  passage  of  ' 
the  present  Indiana  law.  It  was  assumed  by  the  paper  I 
that  the  uniformity  was  too  great  to  be  natural,  and  ! 
that  it  proved  the  employment  of  unfair  means  on  the  ; 
part  of  the  successful  house.  I  suppose  that  no  one  ! 
would  claim  that  this  uniformity  was  due  entirely  to  | 
the  superior  excellence  of  the  books  manufactured  by  the  \ 
firm  in  question.  But  on  the  other  hand,  does  it  show  ; 
anything  more  than  exceptional  push  and  energy  in  the  ! 
usual  methods  of  trade  ?  We  all  know  the  ways  of  active  ! 
traveling  agents  in  all  lines  of  business.  There  can  be  j 
no  doubt  that  corrupt  means  have,  at  times,  been  em-  \ 
ployed  to  secure  the  introduction  of  text-books.  Indeed, 
the  former  Indiana  school  law  itself  favored  the  employ- 
ment of  unfair  means  by  book  publishers.  The  school ! 
trustee  alone,  in  the  township,  had  authority  to  declare  i 
what  text-books  should  be  used  in  his  schools,  and  a  ma- 1 
jority  of  the  trustees  in  the  county  had  the  right  to  nam©  ! 

i 


SCHOOL-BOOK  LEGISLATION,  221 

the  text-books  for  the  county  as  a  whole.  It  is  obvious 
that  the  decision  of  the  few  men  who  held  these  powers 
might  be  influenced  by  active  agents  with  comparatively 
little  difficulty,  and  in  some  cases,  if  the  agents  were 
willing  to  employ  corrupt  means,  at  comparatively  slight 
expense.  But  though  the  methods  employed  by  agents 
may  at  times  have  been  doubtful,  and  though  the  pub- 
lishers may  not  always  have  inquired  too  curiously  into 
the  means  employed  by  their  agents  in  making  sales,  it 
is  not  to  be  believed  that  the  methods  of  school-book 
men  were  more  corrupt  than  those  ordinarily  employed 
by  other  wholesale  dealers  who  have  to  do  with 
public  functionaries.^  Nor  can  one  who  has  been  ac- 
quainted with  hundreds  of  school  teachers  believe  that 
the  teachers  and  trustees  of  a  state  as  a  whole  were  pur- 
chased by  one  or  by  several  book  firms.  But  this  much 
at  least  may  safely  be  asserted,  that  the  means  employed 
by  publishers  to  urge  books  upon  the  schools  have  not 
always  been  fair,  and  that  it  is  not  surprising  that 
efforts  have  been  made  to  check  them,  though  these  ef- 
forts may  not  always  have  been  wisely  directed. 

*  The  activity  of  agents  in  inciting  parents,  teachers  and  school 
officers  to  put  in  their  books,  even  contrary  to  law,  is  shown  in  a 
circular,  November  84,  1890,  by  the  state  superintendent  of 
Mississippi  to  county  superintendents,  in  which  he  says  that 
**  certain  persons,  acting  as  agents  of  the  American  Book  Com- 
pany, were  going  from  school  to  school  in  counties  where  the 
books  of  the  company  had  not  been  adopted,  and  were  inciting 
the  people  to  refuse  to  supply  their  children  with  the  adopted 
books,  efc."  The  attorney-general  ruled  concerning  the  law  that 
the  use  of  the  books  adopted  was  mandatory,  and  that  **  a  county 
superintendent  cannot  lawfully  pay  a  teacher  who  refuses  or  neg- 
lects to  comply  with  his  contract,  which  requires  that  only  books 
selected  under  the  act  of  1890  shall  be  used." 


222  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS, 

So  far  as  can  be  learned  there  is  no  evidence  that  the 
'  combination  of  book  publishers  at  that  time  had  resulted 
in  more  than  a  partial  division  of  territory,  and  conse- 
quently in  a  slackened  competition  between  the  differ- 
ent houses,  with  a  correspondingly  lessened  expense  to 
themselves  for  agents.  There  is  no  evidence  that  the 
prices  of  books  had  been  raised  by  this  combination,  or 
that  competition  had  been  entirely  done  away  with,  as 
in  the  case  of  a  trust  proper.  The  combining  firms 
simply  agreed  to  abandon  one  form  of  competition — 
that  which  consisted  in  employing  agents  specially  com- 
missioned, in  the  first  place,  to  oust  from  the  schools 
the  books  of  other  firms,  and  in  the  second  place  to  pro- 
tect the  books  of  their  own  employers  against  such 
ouster.  Each  firm  agreed  to  respect  the  status  quo.  It 
is  probably  true  that  the  prices  of  school-books  were 
higher  than  would  have  been  necessary  under  the  normal 
conditions  of  trade.  The  expense  of  keeping  so  many 
agents  in  the  field,  before  the  combination  was  made, 
necessitated  these  high  prices;  and  business  firms  are 
seldom  prompt  to  lower  rates.  But  it  is  doubtful  if  the 
abuse  was  great  enough  to  merit  so  aggressive  action  as 
was  taken  in  various  states.  It  is  of  course  under- 
stood that  the  cries,  "  Smash  the  trust,"  "  Strangle  the 
octopus  "  and  so  on,  which  filled  the  papers  were  war- 
cries  to  carry  the  bill  through  the  legislature. 

Assuming,  however,  that  the  prices  of  text-books  were 

unreasonably  high,  let  us  consider  the  relative  merits 

of  the  different  measures  proposed  in  different  states 

to   remedy   this   evil."^     The   first  system   is  that   by 

*  Note  the  date  of  this  article  and  the  note  at  the  end. 


SCHOOL-BOOK  LEGISLATION.  223 

which  the  state  becomes  the  publisher  and  owner,  and 
in  some  cases  even  the  author,  of  the  text-books  used  in 
the  schools.  California  is  the  only  one  of  our  states 
that  has  given  this  plan  a  fair  trial.  In  1882  the  matter 
was  made  a  political  issue  in  that  state,  ''  by  some  politi- 
cians," it  is  asserted,  though,  doubtless,  many  who  voted 
for  the  new  plan  thought  the  state  was  to  derive  great 
benefit  from  it,  financially  and  otherwise.  In  1884  an 
amendment  to  the  state  constitution  obliged  the  state  to 
provide  its  own  plant  and  to  set  about  the  compilation 
of  the  necessary  books.  The  first  estimates  of  the  state 
printer  as  to  the  cost  were  ridiculously  low — not  ten  per 
cent  of  what  has  actually  been  expended ;  but  the  legis- 
lature promptly  voted  the  appropriations  asked  for,  and 
the  plan  has  been  fairly  tested. 

From  the  report  of  the  state  superintendent  for  1886 
I  take  the  following.  The  superintendent  first  states 
the  prices  of  Bancroft's,  McGuffey's,  and  Swinton's 
readers,  and  thus  continues : 

The  series  of  the  state  costs  but  little  more  than  one-third 
of  the  price  of  the  cheapest  of  the  above.*  Here  is  a  triumph- 
ant success,  not  dreamed  of  by  the  most  hopeful  of  the  friends 
of  the  enterprise.  *  *  ^  Henceforth  no  man  will  dare 
try  to  abort  this  great  reform  and  saddle  again  on  the  people 
the  grinding  exaction  under  which  they  have  heretofore 
groaned.     [Page  36.] 

Some  longer  extracts  from  the  report  of  1888,  with  a 
careful  comparison  of  prices,  lead,  however,  to  a  couclu- 

*  It  should  be  said  that  there  are  only  three  readers  in  the 
California  series,  to  five  in  tlie  other,  though  in  paging  there  is 
less  difference. 


224  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS, 

sion  somewhat  different.  The  writer  is  evidently  labor- 
ing to  make  out  his  case.    On  page  49,  he  says : 

The  state  of  California  has  taken  a  step  in  the  right  direc- 
tion in  furnishing  books  of  its  own  manufacture  to  the 
children  at  cost.  It  should  in  my  opinion  go  one  step  farther, 
and  furnish  the  use  of  text-books  free  to  all  children  attend- 
ing the  public  schools. 

In  his  judgment,  this  step  would  save  half  the  cost  to 
those  districts  that  were  willing  to  buy  the  books  and 
loan  them  to  the  children.  It  would  probably  save  more 
than  that.  He  further  says  that  the  complaints  against 
the  system  have  been  due  to  the  poor  binding  of  the  first 
edition,  and  that  there  has  been  no  complaint  in  respect 
to  the  later  issues.  Since  some  of  the  books  have  been 
issued  and  have  gone  into  use,  he  finds  that  many  per- 
sons who  were  opposed  to  the  undertaking  at  first  have 
become  convinced  of  its  feasibility  and  economy.  Then, 
becoming  definite  as  to  prices,  he  adds : 

It  may  be  claimed  and  must  be  admitted,  that  it  costs  the 
state  more  to  manufacture  the  books  than  it  will  cost  a  pri- 
vate publishing  house.  The  state  pays  better  wages  than  the 
private  publisher  and  works  its  help  eight  hours  a  day,  while 
the  private  publisher  works  his  help  ten  hours  a  day.  But 
the  consumer  is  interested  not  in  the  actual  first  cost  of  the 
books  but  in  the  cost  to  him.  Since  the  state  charges  no 
manufacturer's  profit,  no  jobber's  profit,  and  the  retail  dealer 
is  allowed  by  law  to  charge  no  more  than  it  will  cost  the 
pupil  to  have  the  books  sent  to  him  by  mail  (the  retail 
dealer  making  only  the  difference  between  postage  and 
freight),  it  follows  that  the  consumer,  or  pupil,  pays  the 


SCHOOL-BOOK  LEGISLATION. 


225 


private  publisher,  or  his  retail  dealer,  from  30  per  cent  to  66 
per  cent  more  than  he  is  required  to  pay  the  state  for  his 
text-books. 

To  support  this  statement,  he  gives  a  series  of  tables  of 
books  and  prices.  I  cite  the  last  one,  which  summarizes 
the  others. 


Set   of   State  Eeaders 

Set      of      McGuffey's 

(three     books,      928 

Headers   ifivQ  books. 

pages)    

$1.25 

1088  pages)    

$2.50 

Set  of  State  Arithme- 

Set of  Fish's  or  Eobin- 

tics  (two  books)   . . . 

.75 

son's        Arithmetics 

(two  books)    

1.25 

State  Grammar  

.50 

Eeed  and  Kellogg's  or 

State     History      (432 

Harvey's   Grammar.. 

.75 

pages)    

.80 

History      (Anderson's, 
379  pp.;  Barnes',  352 

State  Speller  and  An- 

pp.; or  Eclectic,  400 

alysis    

.30 

PP-)    

Heed's  Speller 

1.25 

$3.60 

.30 

$6.05 


So  far  as  prices  are  concerned,  the  showing  Is  cer- 
tainly very  favorable  for  the  state  series;  but  still  it 
seems  to  me  not  quite  fair.  In  both  cases,  retail  prices 
are  given,  and  presumably  these  prices  were  asked  and 
obtained  in  the  Sacramento  stores.  But  these  figures 
seem  too  high  for  Sacramento,  since  the  price  hy  mail  of 
the  state  books  was  five  cents  higher  than  that  allowed 
to  be  taken  by  retail  dealers,  while  I  find  that  at  that 
date  the  other  books  would  have  been  sent  by  any  job- 


226  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

bing  house  by  mail,  one  book  at  a  time,  for  a  total  of 
thirty-five  cents  less  than  the  quoted  prices — a  small 
difference,  perhaps,  but  worth  noting.  Furthermore, 
the  two  series  of  readers  compared,  while  both  are  con- 
sidered complete,  differ  so  much  in  number  of  books  as 
well  as  in  paging,  that  the  difference  in  prices  should 
not  be  reckoned  at  full  value. 

Again,  and  this  is  of  consequence,  the  prices  of  the 
California  series  are  supposed  to  be  so  calculated  as  to 
cover  in  twelve  years  the  cost  of  plant,  together  with  the 
cost  of  compilation  and  plates  reckoned  on  an  eight-year 
life,  and  one  cent  per  copy  profit  is  added  to  cover  possi- 
ble errors.  As  has  been  said,  the  first  estimate  as  to  the 
amount  of  capital  required  was  but  a  small  part  of  the 
amount  actually  expended.  Again,  it  was  found  in 
1888  that  the  prices  has  been  fixed  too  low,  and  they 
were  raised  at  that  time  to  the  present  rates.  These 
two  facts  taken  together  seem  to  show  that  in  all  prob- 
ability the  state  has  lost,  so  far  at  least,  the  interest  on 
the  money  invested,  besides  some  of  the  working  capital ; 
and  one  may  well  be  somewhat  skeptical  as  to  future  im- 
provement. If  the  interest  on  the  capital  invested  be 
added  to  the  price  of  the  state  books — and  this  seems 
fair — the  difference  as  compared  with  the  publishers' 
price  becomes  less  still  or  even  entirely  disappears. 

The  prices  of  the  California  state  books  are  as  low, 
it  seems,  as  they  can  be  put;  but  within  the  last  two 
years  the  publishers  of  other  school-books  have  lowered 
their  prices  to  purchasers  of  single  copies,  and  any 
school  district  can  make  very  favorable  terms  with  them. 
If  for  the  prices  given  above  I  should  substitute  the 


SCHOOL-BOOK  LEGISLATION,  227 

present  mailing  prices  offered  by  the  American  Book 
Company,  we  should  have : 

McGuffey's  set  of  Headers $2.11 

Fish's  Arithmetic 90 

Harvey's  Grammar   65 

History,  either  of  those  mentioned  above  . . .     1.00 
Speller    25 


Total    $4.91 

The  same  books  could  be  bought  by  the  school  districts 
or  counties  or  state  on  contract  for  $3.94.  If  we  take 
into  account  the  difference  in  the  number  of  books  and 
the  quality  of  work,  to  say  nothing  of  the  contents,  it 
seems  clear  that  at  present,  at  any  rate,  a  state,  if  Cali- 
fornia is  typical,  can  contract  with  publishers  to  furnish 
it  with  text-books  at  a  cost  as  low  as  that  at  which  it  can 
manufacture  them,  and  can  thus  escape  all  the  risk  and 
trouble  of  the  manufacture  and  save  the  interest  on  the 
investment.  Indeed,  the  book  companies  offer  to  mail 
to  individual  buyers  sets  of  books  at  rates  apparently 
as  low  as  the  mailing  prices  of  the  California  books. 
Let  me  cite  one  example  only  of  ten  lists  offered  by  the 
American  Book  Company.  In  addition  to  the  list  of 
California  books  given  above  by  the  state  superintend- 
ent, the  state  publishes  an  elementary  geography  at  60 
cents,  and  an  elementary  language  book  at  30  cents, 
making  the  total  cost  of  the  set  $4.50,  or  by  mail  $4.55. 
The  book  company  places  in  opposition  the  following 
list: 


228  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

McGuffey's  Eevised  First  Header $0.17 

McGuffey's  Revised  Second  Reader 30 

McGuffey's  Revised  Third  Reader 42 

McGuffey's  Revised  Fourth  Reader 50 

McGuffey's  Revised  Speller 17 

Fecklin's  Primary  Aritmetic 28 

Fecklin's  National  Arithmetic 70 

Maxwell's  Primary  Lessons  in  Language  ...       .30 
Maxwell's  Introductory  English  Grammar  ...       .40 

Swinton's  United  States  History 90 

Harper's  Introductory  Geography 48 

$4:62 


Other  combinations  are  made  at  about  the  same  rate, 
one  or  two  of  them  at  even  less  than  $4.55,  and  all  of 
them  containing  some  of  the  best  books.  It  is  noticeable, 
however,  that  the  set  of  readers  is  not  complete,  though 
containing  one  more  than  the  state  series. 

The  state  of  California  at  present  then  is  not  saving 
money  by  manufacturing  books,  if  we  compare  prices 
with  those  it  might  contract  for,  size  and  quality  of 
books  being  considered.  It  is  probably  true,  moreover, 
that  selections  might  be  made  by  any  board  from  the 
books  of  private  firms  that  would  on  the  whole  be  better 
adapted  to  the  work  of  the  schools.  Many  statements 
have  doubtless  been  made  by  private  publishers  in  de- 
nunciation of  the  California  series  that  convey  too 
strong  an  impression  of  worthlessness ;  but  the  general 
opinion  of  educators,  as  well  as  the  circumstances  under 
which  the  books  have  been  compiled,  both  lead  to  the 


SCHOOL-BOOK  LEGISLATION,  229 

conclusion  that  they  are  inferior  to  the  best  standard 
works  of  private  publishers.^ 

It  is  probable  that  the  credit  for  the  more  liberal 
rates  offered  by  the  school-book  publishers,  and  for  the 
greater  care  that  they  are  taking  to  supply  books  directly 
to  pupils  or  to  school  boards,  should  be  given  largely  to 
the  California  movement  and  to  other  plans  adopted 
in  other  states,  looking  toward  cheaper  text-books. 
While  the  state-publishing  plan  costs  more  than  a  state- 
contract  system  might,  or  than  a  system  of  free  text- 
books bought  in  large  quantities  by  county  or  town  offi- 
cials, it  has,  nevertheless,  perhaps  lowered  the  price 
somewhat  when  compared  with  the  system  of  free  com- 
petition now  existing  in  most  states,  f 

*0n  the  3d  of  December,  1890,  the  biennial  convention  of 
California  school  superintendents  adopted,  almost  unanimously, 
the  following  resolution : 

**  Resolved,  that  while  certain  of  the  state  text-books — notably 
the  primary  language  lessons  and  elementary  geography — have 
met  the  approbation  of  the  public  school  teachers  of  the  state, 
we  desire  to  record  our  severe  criticism  and  disapproval  of  others 
of  the  state  series,  and  express  our  judgment  that  their  thorough 
revision  by  comptent  authorities,  so  as  to  adapt  them  to  the 
wants  of  the  schools,  is  imperative  and  should  be  entered  upon 
at  once." — San  Francisco  Examiner,  Dec.  4,  1890. 

It  may  perhaps  be  said  here  once  for  all  that,  while  this  article 
is  written  mainly  from  the  political  and  economic  standpoint, 
the  writer  nevertheless  considers  that  the  quality  of  the  books  is 
of  chief  importance.  A  saving  of  even  fifty  cents  a  year  for  each 
pupil,  important  as  it  is,  is  not  of  such  vital  consequence  as  good 
training  ;  and  this  training,  considering  the  poor  preparation  of 
many  of  our  teachers,  is  largely  dependent  on  the  text-books. 

f  In  a  letter  to  Superintendent  P.  R.  Walker,  of  Rockford,  111., 
received  after  this  article  was  in  the  printer's  hands.  Super- 
intendent Hoitt  of  California  distinctly  acknowledges  that  the 


230  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

Several  states,  with  Minnesota  the  first,  and  per- 
haps, with  the  exception  of  Indiana,  the  most  promi- 
nent, have  adopted  a  uniform  series  of  text-books  for 
the  common  schools,  and  have  made  arrangements  to 
purchase  the  books  at  a  fixed  price  from  one  contractor. 

In  Minnesota  the  act  was  passed  in  1877,  directing 
the  governor,  secretary  of  state,  and  attorney-general  to 
enter  into  a  contract  with  Daniel  D.  Merrill,  to  supply 
the  state  with  books  for  fifteen  years;  the  books  to  be 
equal  in  size  and  in  quality  of  both  matter  and  material 
to  certain  books  named.  The  prices  were  fixed  in  the 
law,  the  former  price  as  well  as  the  contract  price  being 
stated.  In  1878,  provision  was  made  for  submitting  to 
the  voters  the  question  of  continuing  the  act.  In  1880, 
a  majority  of  those  voting  on  that  question  were  in  favor 
of  its  repeal;  but  this  was  without  effect,  since  a  ma- 
jority of  those  voting  at  that  election  was  necessary  to 
repeal  the  law.  In  1883,  and  again  in  1885,  some 
amendments  were  made  regarding  the  distribution  of 
books;  but  these  were  afterward  declared  unconstitu- 


system  has  not  met  his  expectations.  It  has  cost  the  state  more 
to  manufacture,  he  says,  and  there  is  a  lack  of  confidence  in  the 
authorship.  He  adds:  '*  In  the  light  of  our  experience  .  .  .  lam 
reluctantly  compelled  to  admit  that  I  would  not  advise  another 
state  to  enter  upon  state  publication  of  text-books,  but  I  would 
advise  the  making  of  a  uniformity  text-book  law,  and  the  pur- 
chase, at  wholesale,  in  open  market.  I  believe  that  publishers 
would  give  to  a  state  a  less  wholesale  rate  than  to  individuals ; 
and  taking  into  consideration  the  interest  on  the  appropriations 
in  this  state,  and  the  wear  and  tear  of  the  plant,  books  could  now 
be  purchased  at  wholesale  rates  by  the  state  for  less  than  it  costs 
the  state  to  manufacture  them.  In  my  opinion  every  state 
should  provide  for  the  free  use  of  text-books." 


SCHOOL-BOOK  LEGISLATION.  231 

tional,  and  the  original  law  still  stands.    The  section  of 
the  law  fixing  prices  reads  as  follows : 

The  prices  to  be  paid  by  the  state  for  the  above-named 
text-books  shall  be  for  the 

Speller,  not  to  exceed  15  cents.    Present  price,  $0.25 

.20 
"  "  .45 

"  "  .60 

"  "  .90 

"  "  .60 

"        1.00 
"  "  .25 

"  "  .40 

"  "  .94 

"  "  .80 

''  "        1.50 

«  ''        1.60 

And  for  other  books  than  those  in  this  section  named,  a 
proportional  price  and  no  more  shall  be  paid  by  the  state. 

The  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  shall  ^n  a  price 
upon  each  book  which  will  cover  the  cost  of  transmitting 
them  to  the  several  counties  of  this  state. 

Agents  are  appointed  by  the  county  commissioners 
to  sell  these  books  to  the  patrons  and  children  of  the 
schools,  and  such  agents  are  allowed  in  payment  for 
their  services  eight  per  cent  of  the  amount  of  their  sales, 
to  be  paid  out  of  the  school  fund  of  the  county  raised  by 
taxation.  "Any  person  purchasing  books  from  the 
agents  may  sell  the  same  at  an  advance  equal  to  an  aver- 


First  Eeader, 

a 

10 

Second  Reader, 

u 

20 

Third  Reader, 

a 

30 

Fourth  Reader, 

u 

40 

First  Grammar, 

u 

25 

Practical  Grammar, 

« 

50 

First  Arithmetic, 

u 

12 

Second  Arithmetic 

u 

25 

Third    Arithmetic, 

u 

50 

First  Geography 

a 

50 

Second  Geography, 

(t 

80 

Book  of  History, 

u 

60 

232  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

age  of  ten  (10)  per  cent  above  the  state  superintendent's 
list  of  prices  and  no  more.'' 

A  comparison  of  these  prices  will  show  that  book 
publishers  will  supply  similar  books  at  as  good,  and  in 
some  cases  at  better,  rates  even  to  school  districts  buying 
separately,  and  in  some  instances  to  individual  purchas- 
ers. The  testimony  of  many  teachers  is  to  the  same 
effect,  i.e.  that  nothing  is  saved  to  the  pupils  in  money 
by  the  use  of  the  state  series.*  It  is  doubtless  thought  by 
many  teachers,  probably  by  the  majority,  that  they 
could  buy  from  private  publishers  books  that  for  school 
use  would  please  them  better.  Prominent  teachers  in 
the  state  believe  that  the  law  will  be  repealed 
when  the  contract  expires. 

In  order  that  the  books  may  be  kept  up  to  the  stand- 
ard, the  law  provides  that  they  be  revised,  though  not 
oftener  than  once  every  five  years,  in  such  particulars 
as  the  state  superintendent  shall  direct;  but  as  no  pro- 
vision is  made  to  meet  the  expense  of  such  revision,  this 
part  of  the  law  is  practically  null.  The  contractor,  how- 
ever, it  seems,  in  order  to  keep  the  good  will  of  the  peo- 
ple, has  declared  his  willingness  to  bear  the  expense 
of  a  revision,  under  the  direction  of  the  state  superin- 
tendent, of  some  of  the  books  at  any  rate. 

It  may  be  noted  that,  in  Minnesota,  boards  of  educa- 

*It  must  be  added  that  letters  received  from  teachers  in 
Winona  and  St.  Paul  declare  the  state  prices  lower  than  any 
obtainable  from  private  publishers.  But  these  teachers  do  not 
themselves  use  the  books.  A  careful  study  of  price  lists  has  con- 
vinced me  that,  when  aU  the  percentages  are  added,  the  statutory 
prices  are  such  as  the  private  publishers  can  and  will  meet ;  and 
I  believe  the  opinion  expressed  in  the  text  to  be  correct. 


SCHOOL-BOOK  LEGISLATION.  233 

tion  acting  under  special  charter  are  not  under  the  law, 
so  that  many  of  the  cities  are  not  obliged  to  use  the  pre- 
scribed books.  This  doubtless  accounts  in  great  part 
for  the  boast  of  some  book  publishers  that  they  still 
furnish  a  very  large  percentage  of  the  books  to  the  chil- 
dren of  that  state.  The  American  Book  Company 
claims  to  supply  still  about  one-half  of  all  the  text-books 
used  there. 

It  cannot  be  seen  that  Minnesota,  now  at  least,  gains 
anything  by  her  system,  unless  we  believe  that  state 
uniformity  as  such  is  desirable.  It  is  probable,  as  I 
have  said,  that  the  present  low  prices  of  text-books  are 
due  in  part  to  the  state  laws;  and  to  these  especially, 
perhaps,  is  due  the  greater  care  on  the  part  of  the  pub- 
lisher to  protect  his  patrons  from  the  rapacity  of  many 
of  the  retail  dealers  in  country  towns.  By  some  firms 
the  local  dealers  are  compelled  to  sign  a  contract  to  sell 
at  a  fixed  retail  price,  and  the  publishers  pay  the  ad- 
vertisements giving  these  prices.  If  the  retail  dealer 
asks  higher  prices,  he  can  no  longer  get  good  discounts 
from  the  publisher.  The  plan  is  good  for  both  pub- 
lisher and  purchaser;  but  we  may  thank  the  state-con- 
tract systems,  and  the  means  employed  to  pass  them — 
exposure  of  unequal  prices  in  different  places — for  this 
improvement,  as  well  as  for  lower  prices. 

The  state  superintendent  of  Louisiana,  in  his  report 
for  1888-89,  says  that  the  state  board  of  education,  in 
accordance  with  their  school  law,  adopted  a  list  of  books 
to  be  used  in  the  public  seliools,  and  school  officers  were 
to  '^  enforce  the  introduction  and  use  of  said  books  abso- 
lutely.'^ 


234  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

Contracts  were  entered  into  with  publishing  houses,  and 
stipulations  were  made  to  have  the  books  sold  at  the  lowest 
market  prices.  The  retail  prices  are  as  low  as  the  retail 
prices  of  any  state  in  the  Union.  These  prices  are  stamped 
on  the  books.  The  publishers  have  obligated  themselves  (in 
the  contract  providing  a  penalty  for  non-compliance)  to  sell 
them  at  the  stamped  prices.  The  board  endeavored  to  secure 
uniformity  of  text-books  on  terms  the  most  advantageous  to 
the  patrons  of  the  schools.  To  date,  so  far  the  scheme  to 
secure  uniformity  in  the  use  of  books  at  reduced  prices  has 
proven  satisfactory  to  those  upon  whom  devolve  the  ex- 
penses of  purchasing  them.* 

jin  extract  from  the  official  list  of  books  adopted  by 
the  state  board  as  text-books  of  the  state  of  Louisiana, 
June  25, 1889,  for  four  years,  with  the  exchange  and  re- 
tail prices,f  will  enable  ns  to  compare  the  prices  in 
Louisiana  with  those  in  other  states. 

Exchange.  Retail. 

McGuffey's  Primer $0.15 

McGuffey's  Speller  $0.10  .20 

McGuffey's  First  Reader 10  .20 

McGuffey's  Second  Reader 18  .30 

McGuffey's  Third  Reader 25  .45 

McGuffey's  Fourth  Reader 30  .50 

McGuffey's  Fifth  Reader 45  .75 

McGuffey's  Sixth  Reader 50  .85 

Mitchell's  First  Lessons  in  Geography 20  .40 

Mitchell's  New  Primary  Geography 30  .55 

*  Biennial  Report  of  the  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Educa- 
tion of  Louisiana,  page  3. 
\Ibid,,  pp.  151  et  seq. 


SCHOOL-BOOK  LEGISLATION.  236 

Exchange.    Retail. 

Mitchell's    Intermediate    Geography    (State 

Edition)    $0.70       $1.20 

Reed  and  Kellogg's  Graded  Lessons  in  Eng- 
lish      .40 

Reed  and  Kellogg's  Higher  Lessons  in  Eng- 
lish      .60 

Nicholson's  Primary  Arithmetic ,20 

Nicholson's  Intermediate  Arithmetic   ,36 

Nicholson's  Advanced  Intermediate  Arith- 
metic      .90 

The  publishers,  in  the  contract  with  the  state,  agree 
to  give  a  discount  of  sixteen  and  two-thirds  per  cent, 
from  these  retail  prices  to  dealers  generally  throughout 
the  state.  They  further  agree  that  a  rebate  of  ten  per 
cent,  over  and  above  this  discount 

shall  be  allowed  to  not  less  than  six  depositaries,  the  said  de- 
positaries, by  special  agreement  with  the  publishers,  to  agree 
to  sell  the  books  to  the  local  dealers  at  the  general  discount 
of  sixteen  and  two-thirds  per  cent  above  named,  so  as  to  en- 
able the  local  dealers  throughout  the  state  to  sell  the  adopted 
books  to  the  consumers  at  the  retail  price  as  stamped  on  the 
books. 

The  state  designates  such  cities  and  towns  as  are 
deemed  proper  as  depositaries  to  supply  these  books  to 
dealers,  agents,  parents,  and  others. 

The  prices  show  that  the  books  are  sold  to  the  pupils 
at  about  the  usual  wholesale  rates  of  two  years  ago.  It  is 
worth  noting  that  in  Louisiana  state  uniformity  and 


236  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS.  ; 

low  prices  have  been  secured  by  this  state-contract  law, ! 
while  it  cannot  be  said  that  there  is  in  any  sense  a  \ 
monopoly,  as  not  all  the  books  are  furnished  by  the  same  i 
company.  ' 

In  West  Virginia,  the  most  radical  system  has  beeni 
adopted.  The  law  prescribes  by  name  the  text-books  ^ 
that  shall  be  used.  The  state  superintendent  is  then  j 
directed  to  contract  with  the  publishers  of  those  books  to  i 
furnish  them  to  the  state  so  that  the  pupils  may  pur-  ' 
chase  them  at  the  regular  wholesale  price — dealers  in  ; 
that  state  receiving  a  discount  of  sixteen  and  two-thirds  j 
per  cent  from  this  price.  The  retail  price  of  the  books  i 
is  to  be  posted  in  each  school-house  and  bookstore  and  a  j 
heavy  penalty  is  provided  for  selling  to  pupils  at  higher  ; 
prices.  Provision  is  made  for  a  renewal  of  the  contract  i 
every  five  years. 

Last  winter,  the  governor  in  his  regular  message  de-  ^ 
clared  that,  in  his  opinion,  the  pupils  of  the  state  were  i 
paying  "  fully  one-third  more  for  school-books  than  they  ; 
are  reasonably  worth,  and  can  and  will  be  furnished  for,  ! 
if  a  proper  law  upon  the  subject  be  made."  *  He  was  j 
particularly  opposed  to  the  designation  of  the  special  i 
books  by  law,  thinking  that  this  gave  the  publishers  ; 
the  power  to  make  their  wholesale  prices  about  what  ! 
they  pleased.  The  combination  of  several  of  the  leading 
firms  to  lessen  competition,  also,  led  him  to  the  belief  ■ 
that  prices  were  too  high.  In  a  special  message  sent  to  | 
the  legislature  some  ten  days  later — written,  it  may  be  ^ 
said,  after  an  interview  with  the  secretary  of  the  Indi-  ; 

*  Message  of  Governor  "Wilson,  January  13,  1890,  page  22.         j 


SCHOOL-BOOK  LEGISLATION.  237 

ana  School  Book  Company — he  calls  attention  to  the  law 
of  Indiana  and  gives  lists  of  comparative  prices.  These, 
he  says,  reveal  the  fact 

that  we  are  paying  over  thirty-five  per  cent  more  for  the 
books  named  than  the  state  of  Indiana  is  paying  for  books 
of  a  like  character,  as  good  in  every  way  as  ours;  and  we 
are  assured  by  the  manager  of  the  Indiana  house  that  the 
same  books  can  be  furnished  to  us  at  the  same  price. 

It  is  not  to  be  understood  that  Governor  Wilson  recom- 
mended the  Indiana  books;  he  recommended  only  the 
Indiana  system.  The  legislature,  however,  did  not 
change  the  present  system;  but  instead,  it  amended  the 
former  law  so  that  the  new  contract  with  the  publishers 
should  be  made  for  one  year  only  instead  of  five. 

In  Ohio,  also,  last  winter  the  demand  for  cheaper 
text-books  made  itself  felt.  Plans  ranging  from  state 
manufacture  to  local  contract  were  brought  forward. 
Section  4020  of  the  school  law  gave  each  school  board 
the  right  to  prescribe  text-books  for  their  schools,  sub- 
ject to  change  not  oftener  than  once  in  five  years;  and 
also  the  right  to  purchase  direct  from  publishers  and  to 
furnish  to  pupils  at  cost  price  all  text-books  and  school 
supplies.  An  amendment  to  this  section  was  passed 
April  28,  1890.  The  amendment  makes  provision  for  a 
school  board,  to  be  composed  of  the  governor,  the  state 
commissioner  of  schools,  the  supervisor  of  public  print- 
ing, and  two  members  appointed  by  the  governor,  "  one 

*  Special  message,  January  28, 1890,  page  8. 


238  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

from  each  of  the  two  leading  political  parties,  one  of  said 
persons  to  be  a  practical  educator  and  the  other  to  be  a 
practical  business  man."  The  state  commissioner  is  to 
procure  for  this  board,  so  far  as  is  possible,  "  one  copy 
of  the  latest  and  best  edition  of  each  of  the  school  text- 
books in  use  ...  in  the  public  schools,"  and  the  board 
is  directed  to  secure 

all  such  information  as  may  be  necessary  to  fully  advise 
them,  and  within  sixty  days  after  the  passage  of  this  act, 
fix  the  price  not  to  exceed  which  each  of  said  text-books  may 
be  sold  to  and  purchased  by  boards  of  education  *  *  *  ; 
but  the  price  so  fixed  on  any  book  shall  not  exceed  eighty 
per  cent  of  the  present  lowest  price  thereof,  at  which  such 
book  is  now  sold  by  the  publisher  thereof  to  dealers. 

Provision  is  made  for  notice  to  publishers  and  for  their 
acceptance  of  the  terms.  Each  local  board  has  the  right 
to  adopt  whichever  books  it  pleases  from  this  list,  but 
it  must  furnish  to  the  schools,  either  directly  or  through 
dealers,  the  books  of  its  selection.  In  either  case,  the 
pupils  are  not  to  pay  more  than  this  contract  price  plus 
ten  per  cent.  If  satisfactory  books  and  prices  cannot  be 
secured  in  the  way  above  described,  the  state  board  is 
empowered  to  advertise  for  bids  from  publishers,  au- 
thors, or  would-be  compilers,  and  in  this  way  to  secure 
satisfactory  books  at  satisfactory  prices. 

It  is  worthy  of  note,  in  the  first  place,  that  the 
prices  are  to  be  fixed  on  the  books  ^"^  in  use  in  the  public 
schools/'  It  is  asserted  that  this  special  provision  was 
made  at  the  instance  of  publishers  who  had  many  books 


SCHOOL-BOOK  LEGISLATION,  239 

already  in  use,  and  who  knew  that  some  such  measure 
would  probably  be  passed.  Its  effect  was  to  cut  off  in 
the  first  instance,  and  perhaps  permanently,  the  compe- 
tition of  such  contractors  as  those  who  were  already  fur- 
nishing Minnesota  and  Indiana  with  cheap  books,  al- 
though the  provision  was  perhaps  not  directly  aimed  at 
these  special  contractors.  It  is  known  that  the  Ameri- 
can Book  Company,  the  company  which  is  especially 
interested,  has  already  purchased  the  control  of  the 
company  that  supplies  the  Indiana  contractors  with 
their  books ;  but  of  course  the  books  must  still  be  fur- 
nished until  the  expiration  of  the  five  years  for  which 
the  contract  runs.  An  agent  of  the  American  Book 
Company  says,  further,  that  the  Minnesota  contractor 
will  not  act  against  the  company  in  Ohio — implying 
that  they  have  joined  forces.  Others  assert  that  the 
purpose  was  to  avoid  state  uniformity  such  as  is  seen  in 
Indiana  and  Minnesota. 

It  is  understood  that  a  difference  of  opinion  arose 
among  the  members  of  the  school  board  regarding  the 
proper  interpretation  of  the  expression  "  eighty  per 
cent  of  the  present  lowest  price  thereof."  A  decision 
of  the  attorney-general  made  the  expression  mean 
"  eighty  per  cent  of  the  lowest  price  at  which  books  are 
sold  to  dealers."  All  the  publishers  but  one  declined  to 
bid  under  this  interpretation.  At  present  the  law  is 
practically  void,  the  local  boards  still  making  their  own 
contracts  as  formerly.  The  state  board  has  not  yet 
fixed  the  price  on  any  books,  and  new  legislation  will 
therefore  be  needed  to  carry  out  the  law. 

As  the  law  of  Indiana  furnishes  perhaps  the  most 


240  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

complete  example  of  this  contract  system  in  its  fullest 
development,  it  may  be  worth  while  to  give  the  system 
and  the  results  in  that  state  somewhat  in  detail.  The 
law  provides  that  the  state  board  of  education*  shall 
constitute  the  board  of  commissioners. t  This  board  of 
commissioners  is  to  advertise  for  proposals  (a)  "  from 
publishers  of  text-books,  for  furnishing  books  to  the 
school  trustees  for  use  in  the  common  schools  of  the 
state  for  a  term  of  five  years";  (6)  from  authors  of 
school  text-books,  for  prices  at  which  they  will  sell  un- 
published manuscript,  with  copyright  of  such  books,  for 
the  same  purpose ;  and  (c)  from  persons  who  are  willing 
to  undertake  the  compilation  of  such  books  as  are  pro- 
vided for  in  the  act,  for  the  price  at  which  they  are  will- 
ing to  undertake  such  compilation  to  the  acceptance  and 
satisfaction  of  the  board.  The  board  of  commissioners 
is  to  be  satisfied  regarding  the  excellence  of  such  books, 
but  it 

shall  not  in  any  case  contract  with  any  author,  publisher  or 
publishers,  for  the  furnishing  of  any  book,  manuscript,  copy- 
right or  books  which  shall  be  sold  to  patrons  for  use  in  the 
public  schools  of  this  state  at  a  price  above  or  in  excess  of 
the  following,  which  prices  shall  include  all  cost  and  charges 
for  transportation  and  delivery  to  the  several  county  school 


*  This  is  an  ex  officio  board,  consisting  of  the  governor,  the 
state  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  the  president  of  the 
State  University,  the  president  of  Purdue  University  (the  State 
Agricultural  and  Technological  School),  the  president  of  the 
State  Normal  School,  and  the  superintendents  of  common  schools 
of  the  three  largest  cities  in  the  state. 

t  School  laws  of  Indiana,  sec.  4420. 


SCHOOL-BOOK  LEGISLATION.  241 

superintendents  in  this  state,  namely:  For  a  spelling  book, 
ten  (10)  cents;  for  a  first  reader,  ten  (10)  cents;  for  a  second 
reader,  fifteen  (15)  cents;  for  a  third  reader,  twenty-five  (25) 
cents;  for  a  fourth  reader,  thirty  (30)  cents;  for  a  fifth 
reader,  forty  (40)  cents;  for  an  arithmetic,  intermediate, 
thirty-five  (35)  cents;  for  an  arithmetic,  complete,  forty-five 
(45)  cents;  for  a  geography,  elementary,  thirty  (30)  cents; 
for  a  geography,  complete,  seventy-five  (75)  cents;  for  an 
English  grammar,  elementary,  twenty-five  (25)  cents;  for  an 
English  grammar,  complete,  forty  (40)  cents;  for  a  physi- 
ology, thirty-five  (35)  cents;  for  a  history  of  the  United 
States,  fifty  (50)  cents ;  for  copy  books,  each,  five  (5)  cents.* 

These  books  are  to  be  furnished  to  the  schools  by  the 
contractor  through  the  agency  of  the  school  oflScers  of 
the  state  before  the  opening  of  the  schools,  the  township 
trustees  notifying  the  county  superintendent  of  the 
number  of  books  that  will  be  needed  in  their  townships 
throughout  the  year.  The  county  superintendent  reports 
to  the  state  superintendent,  who  in  turn  gives  the  order 
to  the  contractor.  The  contractor  ships  the  books  to  the 
county  superintendent,  who  delivers  them  to  the  town- 
ship trustees,  by  whom  they  are  sold  to  the  patrons  of 
the  schools ;  and  the  money  received  for  the  books  is  then 
remitted  quarterly,  through  the  hands  of  the  trustees  to 
the  county  superintendents.  The  state  is  in  no  case  to 
incur  any  financial  liability.  All  sales  are  to  be  made 
for  cash,  and  the  work  is  to  be  done  at  the  expense  of 
the  state  by  the  school  officers. 

*  Text-book  Law,  sec.  3, 


242 


CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 


MCGUTFEY'S 

Rrapkrb. 

Ray's 
Abith. 

Whitb's 
Abtth. 

HaBV'8 
GaAM'B. 

His- 

TOBY. 

Geogbaphy. 

Phys- 

lOL'QY 

SPKt- 
LEB. 

COUNTIICS.* 

i 

§ 

i 

5 
g 

5 

5 

1 

1 

'i 
i 

2 
® 
p. 

S 

t 

1 

1 

^ 

^ 

00 
1 

.2 
0 

i 

6 

1 

Adams 

42 

75 

50 
42 

75 

65 
75 
75 
65 
75 
75 

1  00 

*i'26* 
"i'oo* 

1  25 
1  00 

55 
55 
65 
80 
55 
65 
60 
55 
55 
55 
75 
60 

1  20 
1  20 
1  80 
1  25 
120 
1  25 
1  20 
1  10 
1  10 
1  10 

Alien 

Barthol'mew 

17 
15 

30 
30 

42 
40 

.50 

50 

72 

80 

85 
80 

50 
55 

1*50 
i'56 

60 
70 

17 
15 

Benton  

50 

75 

50 
42 
66 
45 
60 
42 
42 
50 

Blackford . . . 

85 
85* 

50 
60 
60 

70 
**  "75 

20 

Boone  

Brown 

Carroll 

20 
20 

35 
35 

45 

50 

60 
60 

85 

'42' 
85 
35 

'75* 
65 
65 

90 
20 

Cass 

17 
17 

20 
20 

30 
30 
35 
35 

42 
42 
50 
45 

50 
50 
60 
60 

72 
72 

85 
85 

'56' 

70 
60 

65 
65 
75 

1  10 
*i*25* 

1*80 
1  60 

75 

17 

Clarke 

Clay 

17 
20 

Clinton 

Crawford.... 

Daviess 

Dearborn.... 

Decatur 

Dekalb 

20 
25 
20 
20 
20 
20 

35 

30 
85 
35 
40 
35 

45 
50 
50 
50 
55 
50 

60 
65 
59 
60 
65 
00 

85 
90 
85 
85 
99 
80 

*4i 

'40* 

60 
65 

60 

GO 
60 

'60* 

'75* 

50 
60 
50 
50 

75 
85 
75 
75 
80 
75 
85 
53 

1  00 

'i"i7* 

60 
70 
46 

1  20 
1  25 
1  30 

1  40 

* "  *75 

70 
75 

20 

'26** 
20 

Delaware. . . . 

1  25 

55 
65 

1  20 
1  80 

20 

Dubois 

Elkhart 

45 
50 
35 

1  60 

20 

Fayette 

Floyd 

15 

25 

35 

52 

50 

21 

52 

42 

54 

84 

55 

1  20 

50 

Fountain .... 

20 

35 

50 

GO 

86 

45 

60 

.... 

50 

75 

1  20 

65 

1  40 

20 

Franklin 

Fulton 

Gibson 

20 
20 
20 
20 

30 
35 
35 
35 

45 
50 
50 
50 

60 
65 
60 
65 

85 
85 
85 
80 

65 
70 
60 
50 
60 
65 

50 

75 

45 

80 
75 
80 
75 
65 
75 
80 
78 
75 
75 
75 
65 
75 

1  25 
1*25' 

"i'io* 
*i"26* 

1  25 
1  20 

*i*66* 

60 
55 

i'25 
1  25 

1  25 
1  20 

75 

20 
20 

Grant 

50 

75 

1  25 

75 

20 

Greene 

20 

Hamilton. . .. 

45 
40 

20 

Hancock 

40 

Harrison 

64 

1  50 
1  80 

1*50 

70 
72 

75 

20 

Hendricks  . . . 

42 

60 

*66' 
'46* 

76 
75 

'75* 

'75' 

50 
50 
50 
45 
42 
50 

Henry 

Howard 

20 

35 

55 

65 

85 

'46' 

60 

20 

65 
65 
55 
65 

1  35 
1  85 
1  10 
1  85 

20 

Huntin&rton 

70 
100 

20 

Jackson 

Jasper 

Jay 

17 
20 

30 
35 

42 
50 

50 
60 

72 
85 

35 

50 

17 
20 

Jefferson  — 
Jenninpfs 

20 

30 

42 

50 

75 

35 

50 

45 

65 

1  00 

55 

90 

1  50 

1  00 

20 

Johnson. 

35 
25 

65 
60 

1  25 
1  00 

65 
65 

70 

1  35 
1  40 
1  40 

25 

Knox 

Kosciusko... 
Lasrrancre.. . 

20 
20 

35 
35 

45 

50 

60 
60 

85 
85 

*56* 
40 

*85 
70 

50 
50 

76 

85 

75 
75 

20 
20 

Lake 

15 

30 

42 

55 

85 

45 

65 

80 

65 

1  80 

23 

Laporte 

Lawrence . . . 

20 

35 

50 

05 

85 

S') 

65 

75 

65 

1  50 

(     75 
U  20 

20 

*  This  table  is  taken  from  the  attorney-general's  brief  in  the  case  of  State  ex 
rel.  Philip  Snoke  vs.  Elijah  A.  Blue,  Trustee,  etc.,  pp.  42,  43 ;  published  in  the 
Indianapolis  Sentinel^  February  20, 1890. 


SCHOOL-BOOK  LEOISLATION. 


243 


McGXJFFEY'S 

Readers. 

Ray's 
Abith. 

White's 
Akith. 

Harv's 
Gram'r. 

His- 
tory. 

Geography . 

Phys- 

lOL'GY 

Spel- 
ler. 

CbUMTIICS. 

1 

T3 

a 
o 

1 

r5 
H 

u 

c 

5 

1 

5 

1 

.2 

1 

0 
0 

1 

0) 

c 

1 
ft 

0 

0 

0 

a; 

6 

i 

6 

6 

'3 

Madison 

20 

35 

55 

60 

85 

60 
45 

'60 

65 
65 


'75' 

70 

75 

1  40 
1  40 

20 

Marion 

50 
45 

'56* 

85 
75 
80 

'75' 
85 

1  10 

1  00 

20 

Marshall 

30 

.. 
20 
30 

35 
40 
85 
85 

50 
50 
45 
50 

60 
05 
60 
60 

85 

1  00 
85 
85 

45 

60 
75 

65 

20 

Martin 

1  25 
1  25 
1  20 
1  25 

60 

70 
75 

1  25 
1  25 
1  25 
1  35 

1  50 

Miami 

20 

Monroe 

1  50 
1  50 

70 

20 

Montgomery. 
Mor&ran 

60 

85 

45 

Newton 

55 

85 

60 
45 

85 
70 
80 
80 
65 
85 

"i'io' 

1  25 
1  35 

1  00 
1  00 

75 
55 
65 

65 
60 
75 

1*26 
1  25 

1  50 

i'85 
1  35 
1  85 
1  50 

75 
65 
60 

20 

Noble 

Ohio 

20 
30 
20 
20 
20 

35 
35 
34 
35 
35 

45 
50 
50 
45 
50 

55 
60 
60 
55 

60 

80 
90 
85 
75 
1  00 

.... 
"56* 

55 
55 
60 
50 

"26 

Owen        . .  •  • 

... 

50 
35 
50 

Orange 

Parke 

"i*66 

20 
20 

Perrv 

piie......::: 

Porter 

30 
30 
30 
30 
15 
17 
30 
30 

35 
35 
35 
35 
30 
30 
35 
40 

50 
50 
50 
50 
45 
45 
50 
55 

65 
63 
60 
60 
55 
50 
60 
70 

8;. 

85 
85 
85 
75 
85 
1  00 

30 
40 
30 

'56* 

;J0 
60 
65 
(}0 
50 
60 
65 

40 
45" 

80 
'96' 

50 
60 
45 
50 
40 
45 
50 
55 

^■0 
75 

"so' 

76 
65 

80 
85 

1  J'O 
1  15 
1  15 

Posey 

Pulaski 

65 

I  30 

1  5G 

70 
70 
70 
75 

' ' '  "I'h 
1  00 

20 
10 

90 

Randolph  . . . 

Ripley 

Rush 

1  25 
1  00 
1  25 
1  35 

65 
55 
05 
60 

1  28 
1  20 

1  50 

60 

1  50 

1  60 

20 

.... 

17 

20 

Scott 

.... 

20 

Shelbv 

Spencer  

Starke 

Steuben 

St.  Joseph... 
Sullivan 

20 
25 

30 

30 
20 
30 
17 
15 
30 

35 

30 
30 
25 
20 
20 

35 
40 
35 

35 
35 
35 
30 
25 
35 

40 
35 
85 
40 
35 
35 

50 
55 
45 

4.5 

50 
50 
42 
35 
50 

50 
.50 
45 
00 
50 
50 

60 
75 
55 

60 
60 

50 
43 
60 

65 
60 
55 
To 

6^.) 
60 

85 

1  00 

75 

"75 

85 
85 
73 
60 
85 

"96 
85 
85 
9U 
85 
85 

45 

"3.5* 
45 

60 
65 

GO 
60 

45 
55 
45 

■45 
50 

50 
42 

75 

90 

70 

75' 
80 
75 
65 
54 

1  35 
1  25 
1  10 

*i'66' 

120 

'i'06' 

84 

1  20 

'1*26* 
1  10 
1  35 

76 
75 

1  20 
1  35 

20 

'40* 
65 

'76" 
90 

75 

60 
65 
60 
55 
46 
60 

75 
65 
65 
lit 
(55 
70 
65 
65 

i*30 
1  25 
1  20 
1  20 
1  00 
1  25 

i'46 
1  40 
I  85 
1  40 
1  25 
1  35 
1  25 
1  80 

1  60 

20 

I  55 

i  66 

70 
84 
60 
60 

""75 
75 
65 

Tippecanoe.. 
Tipton 

60 

75 

20 
17 

42 

15 

Vauderljurg. 
Vermilion.  . . 
Vifjo 

20 

'4.5* 

65 
60 
60 
60 
60 

'56* 
50 
50 
50 
50 

'85' 
75 
65 
85 
75 

Wabash 

Warren 

Warrick 

Washington. 

Wayne 

Wells 

45 
65* 

75 
85 

"26" 
**26" 

45 
'46" 

75 
'75' 

i'so 

70 
75 

****66 

50 
50 

50 

75 
75 
75 

115' 

20 

White 

Whitley 

25 

30 

35 
35 

50 
45 

80 
60 

85 
75 

'45* 

20 
20 

.... 

It  is  difficult  at  this  early  date  to  give  exactly  the 
saving  made  to  the  state  by  this  law.  The  preceding 
table,  compiled  from  figures  submitted  by  the  county 


24:4  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

superintendents  to  the  committee  on  education  of  the 
last  legislature,  purports  to  give  the  usual  prices  ob- 
tained for  the  text-books  in  the  various  counties  of  the 
state. 

The  table  has  permanent  value,  as  showing  the  vari- 
ation in  prices  throughout  a  state,  under  a  system  of  free 
competition  modified  by  county  contracts  in  places.  It 
is  due  the  publishers  to  say  that  it  has  been  clearly 
shoAvn,  since  the  publication  of  this  table,  that  some  few 
of  the  county  superintendents  sent  in  "  contract,"  in- 
stead of  retail  prices.  The  superintendent  of  Union 
county,  for  example,  writes  that  he  sent  in  *^  contract " 
prices,  while  prominent  dealers  of  the  same  county  give 
their  regular  retail  prices  about  the  same  as  those  in 
Vanderburg  county.  Similar  facts  appear  regarding 
Fayette  County.  In  Bartholomew  county  there  is 
clearly  a  mistake  as  to  the  readers  in  general  use,  as  the 
county  had  adopted  Harvey's  instead  of  McGuffey's. 
There  are  probably  other  mistakes  of  more  or  less  conse- 
quence. It  still  holds  true  that  this  table,  based  on  re- 
turns from  the  county  superintendents,  had  a  powerful 
— very  likely  a  decisive — influence  in  securing  the  pas- 
sage of  the  bill.  It  is  true,  too,  that  the  table  does  show 
really  wide  variations  in  prices  in  the  different  coun- 
ties; and  the  advocates  of  the  law,  who  were  de- 
nouncing the  "  school-book  trust,"  of  course  charged  this 
lack  of  uniformity  upon  the  publishers.  Doubtless  the 
retail  dealers  were  more  to  blame ;  for  in  the  case  of  the 
State  ex  rel,  Philip  Snoke  vs,  Elijah  A.  Blue,  Trustee, 
it  was  proved,  by  the  affidavit  of  a  member  of  the  firm 
which  furnished  the  great  majority  of  the  books  in  use, 


SCHOOL-BOOK  LEGISLATION.  245 

that  their  prices,  as  issued  by  themselves  and  by  whole- 
sale dealers  in  general,  were  uniform ;  also,  that  in  their 
sales  throughout  the  state  to  dealers,  they  had  consist- 
ently followed  their  regular  rules  regarding  discounts, 
and  had  in  no  case  given  more  than  16  2-3  per  cent. 
Catalogues  of  large  jobbing  houses  confirm  the  testi- 
mony. 

If,  now,  we  grant  that  the  books  furnished  under  the 
new  text-book  law  are  equal  in  paper,  binding  and  print 
to  those  named  in  the  law — and  this  has  been  virtually 
affirmed  by  the  state  board  of  education — ^we  can  see 
that  a  great  saving  has  been  made  in  the  cost  of  books. 
The  city  superintendent  of  one  of  the  largest  cities  in 
the  state  estimates  this  saving  at  from  thirty-three  to 
forty  per  cent.  Other  good  authorities  estimate  it  at 
even  more  than  that.  The  state  superintendent,  think- 
ing that  the  cost  of  introduction,  which  may  fairly  be 
added  to  the  prices  of  the  books,  is  very  large,  has  se- 
cured reports  from  as  many  counties  as  possible  in  the 
state,  with  the  purpose  of  showing  the  cost  of  introduc- 
tion of  these  books  during  the  first  year.  These  reports, 
from  over  forty  counties,  show  that,  if  the  estimates  are 
fair,  the  cost  of  handling  the  books  for  this  year  amounts 
to  some  $22,000 ;  others,  reckoning  by  districts,  put  the 
expense  at  nearly  $40,000.  Some  of  the  school  officials 
•  are  of  the  opinion  that  this  item  is  enough  to  more  than 
balance  the  saving  in  the  price  of  the  books.  The  law, 
then,  in  their  judgment,  results  merely  in  a  shifting  of 
the  burden  from  the  parents  to  the  tax-payers. 

These  figures,  however,  cannot  be  considered  as  fairly 
representative.    In  the  first  place,  the  cost  of  introduc- 


246  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS, 

ing  the  books  in  the  first  year  will  greatly  exceed — in 
fact,  will  probably  more  than  double — that  of  supplying 
the  regular  demand  for  the  books  thereafter.  Again, 
in  many  of  the  counties  where  the  expense  seems  great- 
est in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  books  sold  (as,  for 
instance,  in  Warren  county,  where,  for  selling  $189.20 
worth  of  books,  there  was  paid  to  the  trustees  and  county 
superintendent  the  sum  of  $320),  little  attempt  has  been 
made  to  carry  the  law  into  execution ;  on  the  contrary, 
decisive  efforts  have  been  made  to  throw  discredit  upon 
it.  In  contrast  with  this  report  can  be  placed  the  report 
of  the  city  of  Fort  Wayne,  where,  according  to  the  state- 
ment of  the  city  superintendent,  more  than  $2,000  worth 
of  books  have  been  introduced,  at  an  expense  of  less 
than  $12 ;  and  where  the  total  expense,  including  new 
books  furnished  to  the  teachers  at  the  expense  of  the 
board  and  those  furnished  to  indigent  pupils,  was  $132. 
29.  In  this  case,  the  cost  of  introduction  is  the  amount 
paid  for  drayage  and  the  mere  handling  of  the  books. 
The  work  done  by  the  city  superintendent  and  the  jani- 
tors and  by  the  clerk  in  selling  the  books  is  not  reckoned. 
The  labor  of  these  officers  has  been  increased,  but  their 
salary  has  remained  the  same.  So,  too,  it  is  doubtful 
whether  the  amount  returned  by  some  of  the  county 
superintendents  and  school  trustees  as  to  the  expense  of 
handling  the  books  is  fairly  estimated.  The  work  of 
selling  the  books  must  in  many  instances  be  so  combined 
with  other  work  that  it  is  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to 
separate  it.  \Miere,  owing  to  this  law,  the  county  super- 
intendent has  been  furnished  with  an  assistant,  it  is  easy 
to  determine  the  extra  expense  j  but  in  many  cases  it  is 


SCHOOL-BOOK  LEGISLATION.  247 

difficult,  if  not  impossible.  Another  report  of  the  state 
superintendent,  given  in  a  private  letter,  shows  that  the 
cost  of  managing  the  educational  affairs  of  the  counties, 
so  far  as  the  trustees  are  concerned,  exceeds  in  1890 
that  of  1889  by  $13,061.85. 

Even  granting  that  the  returns  made  to  the  state 
superintendent  in  the  first  list  are  just  and  fair,  we  still 
are  able  to  see  that  there  has  been  a  real  saving  of  con- 
siderable extent  in  the  price  of  books  furnished  to  pu- 
pils, provided,  of  course,  that  the  books  are  of  equal 
quality  with  those  replaced.  The  book  company  has 
furnished  during  the  year  some  $300,000  worth,  and  if 
only  twenty  per  cent  has  been  saved  in  price,  this  is 
enough  to  counterbalance  the  cost  of  introduction  twice 
told.  This  last  item  of  course  varies  greatly ;  but  when 
the  effort  has  been  fairly  made,  the  introduction  appears 
to  cost  from  five  to  ten  per  cent  of  the  selling  price. 
When  the  system  is  fairly  in  operation,  this  item  should 
not  be  more  than  ten  per  cent,  and  should  in  most  cases 
be  less.  It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  contractor 
pays  the  freight  to  the  counties.  It  is  probable  that  the 
law  would  be  improved,  if  an  amendment  were  made 
permitting  the  contractor  to  deal  directly  with  local 
dealers,  rather  than  with  the  county  superintendents 
and  school  trustees.  Many  of  the  dealers  would  be  will- 
ing to  do  the  work  at  a  low  percentage  of  the  sales ;  some 
would  do  it  for  nothing.  This  would  be  both  cheaper 
and  more  convenient. 

The  third  plan  of  providing  the  schools  of  the  state 
with  cheaper  text-books,  and  the  plan  most  favored  by 
the  best  educators,  is  the  free  text-book  system  which 


248  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS.  j 

i 

has  been  adopted,  wholly  or  in  part,  in  Massachusetts,  i 
Michigan,  Vermont,  New  Hampshire  and  Wisconsin,  in  j 
the  cities  of  California,  New  Jersey  and  New  York,  and  | 
in  other  places.  Under  this  system,  the  school  boards  I 
or  the  county  boards,  as  the  case  may  be,  purchase  the  I 
books  that  they  deem  most  desirable  from  the  publishers,  i 
at  wholesale,  in  large  quantities,  and  then  either  rent  I 
them  or,  more  commonly,  loan  them  to  the  children.  In  ; 
Massachusetts,  where  this  system  has  been  compulsory  : 
for  several  years,  the  saving  has  been  very  great.*  ! 

School-book  men  in  general  say  that  under  this  sys-  ! 
tern  the  average  life  of  a  text-book  is  from  three  to  five  ; 
years,  so  that  besides  the  cheaper  prices  obtained  by  pur-  ■ 
chasing  books  from  the  publishers  in  large  quantities,  j 
the  same  book  may  be  used  by  at  least  three,  and  fre-  j 
quently  more,  different  pupils.  In  the  seventh  and  j 
eighth  grades  of  the  grammar  school  in  Frankfort,  ; 
Indiana,!  standard  text-books  in  literature  have  been  I 
furnished  by  the  school  board  to  the  pupils,  instead  of 
readers.  The  same  books  have  been  used  by  two  sections 
of  the  same  class  and  by  both  classes  at  the  same  time,  j 
making  four  students  that  were  using  the  same  book  at  i 
once.  In  spite  of  this  use,  the  books  that  were  bought  : 
twelve  years  ago  are  still  in  use  in  that  school,  and  are  \ 

*  In  Boston,  the  average  cost  per  pupil  for  six  years  was  $3.43  ! 
in  the  high  schools  ;  $1.14  in  the  grammar  schools  ;  23  cents  in  > 
the  primary  grades.  This  covers  a  larger  series  of  books  than  are  , 
contained  in  the  lists  given  above  ;  but  I  have  not  the  data  for  i 
exact  comparison.  : 

f  Given  on  authority  of  Professor  R.  G.  Boone,  of  the  State  , 
University  (now  Editor  of  Education),  formerly  the  siiperin-  j 
tendent  at  Frankfort,  and  the  one  that  introduced  the  plan.  j 


k 
SCHOOL-BOOK  LEGISLATION.  249 

still  in  good  condition.  Some  of  the  text-books,  for  ex- 
ample ''  Kellogg's  edition  of  Shakespeare,"  cost  origin- 
ally twenty-five  cents  each.  This  made  the  cost,  for  each 
pupil,  only  about  six  cents  for  one  year,  and  half  a  cent 
for  each  of  the  twelve  years.  Under  a  system  of  indi- 
vidual purchase,  the  outlay  for  books  to  do  the  same  serv- 
ice would  be  per  pupil  twenty-five  cents  yearly,  or  for 
the  twelve  years,  three  dollars.  This  example  shows 
most  strikingly  how  much  money  may  be  saved  by  this 
free  text-book  system,  even  if  the  prices  paid  the  pub- 
lishers be  not  so  low  as  may  be  obtained  under  the  con- 
tract system.  Similar  results  are  shown  in  the  sup- 
ply of  pens,  stationery,  ink,  etc.  Other  reasons  given 
for  the  adoption  of  the  free  text-book  system,  instead  of 
the  state-manufacturing  or  state-contract  system,  are 
perhaps  well  sunmied  up  in  the  following: 

1.  Much  time  is  saved.  It  has  been  estimated  in 
Massachusetts  that  some  five  days'  time  is  lost  each  year 
by  delay  of  parents  in  purchasing  books. 

2.  It  secures  a  better  classification  and  greater  uni- 
formity than  purchase  by  pupils,  unless  the  purchase  be 
under  some  prescribed  uniformity  law.  In  the  Eeport 
of  the  State  Superintendent  of  Missouri  for  1890,  we 
find  the  following: 

One  man  [a  member  of  a  school  board]  a  few  weeks  ago 
was  complaining  of  the  multiplicity  of  text-books  in  use  in 
his  school;  he  said:  "  There  are  three  kinds  of  arithmetic  of 
the  same  grade,  two  geographies  and  four  grammars  in  use, 

*In  an  admirable  little  pamphlet  on  Systems  of  Text-book 
Supply,  by  S.  S.  Parr,  the  average  per  capita  cost  per  year  under 
any  of  the  systems  is  placed  at  about  60  cents. 


250  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

and,  don't  you  know,  that  are  [5ic]  too  many  for  one  teacher 
to  teach  every  day."    [Page  18.] 

Similar  instances  as  regards  both  the  number  of  books 
and  the  learning  of  the  director  can  be  found  in  many 
states. 

3.  It  effects  a  saving  in  expense.  This  has  been  abun- 
dantly illustrated. 

4.  It  cultivates  respect  for  public  property.  Con- 
trary to  the  general  impression,  experience  proves  be- 
yond question  that  children,  acting  under  the  influence 
of  the  teacher  and  of  the  stimulus  that  comes  from  the 
penalty  of  buying  a  new  book  if  the  one  owned  by  the 
district  is  carelessly  lost  or  spoiled,  take  better  care  of 
books  belonging  to  the  school  than  of  their  ovm. 

5.  It  secures  a  better  variety  and  choice  of  books. 
Especially  is  this  shown  along  the  line  of  supplementary 
reading,  etc. 

6.  It  effectually  prevents  waste  in  the  case  of  a  change 
of  residence  on  the  part  of  families. 

7.  It  increases  the  attendance.  In  East  Saginaw, 
Michigan,  the  year  the  free  text-book  system  was  in- 
augurated saw  an  increased  enrollment  of  ten  per  cent 
with  less  than  one  per  cent  increase  in  the  school  census. 
In  Fall  Eiver,  Massachusetts,  in  seven  years  the  enroll- 
ment increased  but  two  per  cent,  while  the  average  at- 
tendance increased  twenty-seven  per  cent.  The  superin- 
tendent says :  "  The  result  is  due  almost  entirely  to  free 
text-books.''  Indeed,  this  is  the  universal  testimony,  and 
no  one  can  fail  to  recognize  how  powerful  an  argument 
it  is  in  favor  of  the  system. 


/ 


SCHOOL-BOOK  LEGISLATION.  251 

8.  No  discrimination  is  made  between  rich  and  poor. 

As  regards  objections  to  the  plan,  it  may  be  said  that 
children  are  not  forbidden  to  purchase  their  own  books 
if  they  wish,  but  are  enabled  to  secure  them  at  cost 
price ;  that  no  ill  effect  in  the  way  of  transmission  of  con- 
tagious diseases  has  been  seen,  and  that  this  effect  would 
more  likely  come  from  our  public  library  systems, 
where  no  such  effect  appears ;  that  so  long  as  the  books 
are  furnished  to  all,  no  feeling  of  dependence  is  engen- 
dered ;  that  not  so  much  time  of  school  officers  is  taken  as 
under  any  system  of  state  supply  to  pupils  at  cost ;  and 
that  in  any  case,  when  the  books  are  furnished  to  the 
school  as  a  whole,  this  is  not  a  burdensome  task.*  As 
regards  the  assertion  that  the  pupil's  text-books  fre- 
quently furnish  the  nucleus  of  a  private  library,  it  may 
be  questioned  whether  they  are  especially  adapted  for 
this  purpose.  The  money  saved  by  free  text-books, 
however,  if  invested  in  supplementary  works,  might  well 
serve  to  start  such  a  library. 

The  weight  of  opinion  among  school  men — state 
superintendents,  city  superintendents  and  others — is 
very  decidedly  in  favor  of  free  text-books,  with  the 
choice  of  books  left  to  local  authorities ;  though  in  not 
a  few  cases  county  uniformity,  and  in  some  instances, 
especially  in  the  South  and  West,  state  uniformity  is 
thought  desirable.  In  our  new  states,  doubtless,  the 
local  authorities  are  often  not  competent  to  select  suit- 
able books,  and  it  is  doubtless  wise  for  the  state  authori- 

*  This  summary  is  mostly  taken  from  the  Report  of  the  State 
Superintendent  of  Indiana  for  1888,  pp.  429  et  seq.,  and  Iowa  Re- 
port 1883-85,  pp.  69  et  seq. 


CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS.  i 

ties  at  least  to  recommend  a  list  from  which  they  may ! 
choose.  The  state  superintendent  of  Texas  in  his 
report  for  1888,  page  23,  says:  "The  free  text-book 
system  would  not  be  generally  practicable  in  Texas 
outside  of  the  larger  towns  and  cities,  on  account  of  the  ' 
want  of  suitable  provisions  for  the  care  and  preservation 
of  the  books."  He  nevertheless  thinks  that  system  the 
best  one  where  there  are  good  buildings.  Along  the 
same  line  of  thought,  he  recommends  state  uniformity 
of  books  for  the  ungraded  schools,  but  not  for  the  cities ; 
and  he  has  through  his  personal  influence  brought  about 
county  uniformity  in  many  or  most  of  the  counties  of 
the  state. 

It  will  be  a  matter  of  surprise  to  many  that,  in  spite 
of  quite  a  general  feeling  against  it  among  school  men, 
no  less  than  eleven  states  at  present  [1891.  See  note 
at  end  of  article  for  conditions,  1905.]  have  state  uni- 
formity of  text-books ;  while  in  some  others  the  state  su-  i 
perintendent  furnishes  more  than  one  list  of  text-books 
from  which  the  counties  or  districts  must  or  may  choose. 
Delaware,  which  formerly  had  the  system  of  state  pur- 
chase, somewhat  similar  to  the  system  in  Minnesota  and 
Indiana,  has  abandoned  it,  though  there  is  still  state 
uniformity  of  text-books.  Maryland,  with  former  uni- 
formity throughout  the  state,  has  now  county  uniform- 
ity only. 

In  three  states,  Massachusetts,  Maine  and  New 
Hampshire,  text-books  are  free  throughout  the  state. 
In  at  least  seven  other  states  either  the  town,  district 
or  county  may  decide  by  vote  to  make  books  free.  In 
other  states  still,  this  power  is  probably  in  the  town. 


SCHOOL-BOOK  LEGISLATION.  253 

Wherever  the  system  is  introduced  it  grows  rapidly  in 
favor.  In  Michigan,  a  law  providing  for  submission  of 
the  question  to  the  several  school  districts  having  passed 
the  legislature  in  1889,  at  the  following  spring  election 
not  fewer  than  520  districts  voted  in  favor  of  free  text- 
books. 

In  many  states  it  has  been  for  some  years  the  custom 
for  the  town  or  county  officials,  when  adopting  a  series 
of  text-books  for  use  in  the  schools,  to  enter  into  a  defi- 
nite contract  with  the  publisher  to  sell  at  a  fixed  price  to 
pupils,  as  well  as  to  dealers,  though  the  board  does  not 
itself  undertake  the  sale  of  the  books.  All  the  cases  in 
which  the  state  officials  purchase  books  out  of  the  public 
funds  and  then  sell  to  pupils  have  been  already  given, 
it  is  thought,  except  Iowa,  where  this  may  be  done  by 
town  or,  after  special  vote,  by  county  officials.  In 
case  of  free  text-books,  of  course,  the  public  funds  are 
used  to  purchase  the  books,  but  no  regular  mercantile 
business  is  done,  though  individual  pupils  are  usually 
allowed  to  get  books  at  the  contract  rate. 

From  our  study  so  far,  we  reach  the  following  con- 
clusions : 

1.  The  state  manufacture  of  text-books,  as  carried 
on  in  California,  has  not  directly  reduced  the  expense 
to  the  state.  It  is  certain  that  most  of  the  books  are 
inferior  to  those  that  might  be  obtained  at  about  the 
same  prices  by  special  contract,  wherever  the  school 
officers  are  fairly  competent  men.  The  special-contract 
system,  moreover,  enables  the  different  localities  to 
suit  their  own  needs. 

2.  The  contract  system  in  Minnesota,  where  all  the 


254:  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

books  are  furnished  by  one  contractor,  has  not  directly 
lessened  the  cost  of  books  to  the  pupils,  if  we  take  pres- 
ent rates.  It  probably  did,  with  California  and  Indi- 
ana, have  an  influence  in  reducing  prices.  Some  of 
the  books  are  not  satisfactory,  though  they  are  by  no 
means  so  nearly  worthless  as  represented. 

3.  Prices  in  Indiana  have  been  materially  lessened 
by  the  contract  system.  As  regards  the  quality  of  the 
books,  they  may  fairly  be  called  good,  though  not  the 
best,  both  in  material  and  in  subject  matter.  The  list 
is  not  yet  completed.  Better  books  migh^  readily  be 
obtained  in  open  market  at  somewhat  higher  prices. 

4.  The  action  of  these  three  states  in  particular, 
and  the  agitation  of  the  question  in  other  states,  has 
doubtless  produced  good  results,  in  that  it  has  led  to 
lower  prices  from  publishers,  better  control  of  retail 
dealers  as  regards  their  profits,  and  a  careful  study  of 
the  whole  question.  The  agitation  has  been  in  good 
part  due  to  the  desire  of  politicians  to  pose  as  friends 
of  the  poor ;  but  the  success  of  the  movement  is  largely 
due  to  methods,  often  unwisely  political  and  sometimes 
positively  corrupt,  employed  by  publishers'  agents  in 
pushing  sales. 

5.  The  free  text-book  system  seems,  on  the  whole, 
to  be  the  best,  both  as  regards  economy  and  the  general 
effect  on  the  schools.  In  some  few  localities  it  may  be 
impracticable,  as  the  state  superintendent  of  Texas 
affirms  that  it  is  in  many  of  the  country  districts  of  his 
state,  though  even  there  it  would  probably  work  better 
than  he  thinks. 

6.  Whether  these  text-books  shall  be  prescribed  and 


SCHOOL-BOOK  LEGISLATION.  255 

purchased  by  the  state,  county,  or  local  board,  will  de- 
pend upon  special  circumstances.  In  the  states  in 
which  the  local  boards  and  even  the  teachers  are  almost 
utterly  untrained,  it  would  seem  best  for  the  state  to 
take  the  matter  in  charge,  at  least  so  far  as  to  select 
a  number  of  standard  sets  from  which  a  choice  may  be 
made.  In  the  more  progressive  states,  the  towns  and 
cities  can  well  manage  the  business  for  themselves. 
Here  state  uniformity  is  doubtless  an  injury.  In  states 
in  which  the  county  superintendents  are  attempting 
to  grade  the  rural  schools,  the  county  should  be  charged 
with  the  selection  of  the  books,  so  far  as  those  schools  are 
concerned.  In  some  few  of  the  smaller  states,  the 
whole  state  corresponds  roughly  to  the  county  in  the 
larger  states,  and  similar  circumstances  there  might  well 
require  state  uniformity.  Again,  in  some  of  the  east- 
ern states,  where  there  is  practically  no  county  organ- 
ization, of  course  the  towns  must  serve  as  the  unit  where 
the  state  does  not. 

The  whole  question  is  an  exceedingly  interesting  one 
to  the  student  of  political  science.  The  whole  agitation 
is  evidently  but  part  of  that  great  movement  away  from 
individualism  and  toward  the  increase  of  governmental 
functions — toward  even  a  strongly  centralized  control. 
The  question,  too,  is  by  no  means  settled.  In  several 
states  the  matter  is  being  discussed,  and  before  this  arti- 
cle shall  appear  in  print,  many  bills  will  doubtless  be 
under  consideration  by  our  state  legislatures  and  some 
new  laws  may  already  have  been  passed.  We  may  feel 
confident  that  however  much  political  parties  may  use 
the  question  to  serve  party  ends,  or  however  much  rival 


256  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

publishing  houses,  in  their  own  interests,  may  scheme 
to  promote  or  smother  special  bills,  the  public  schools 
are,  after  all,  dear  to  the  people;  and  whatever  plan 
shall  have  shown  itself  by  experience  to  be  best  will 
eventually  prevail,  though  it  may  be  only  after  many 
costly  experiments.  In  this  matter,  as  in  so  many 
others,  we  need  more  light  on  present  conditions,  more 
comparative  study,  and  we  should  not  legislate  too 
hastily. 

NOTE. 

This  article  on  school-book  legislation  shows  the  con- 
dition of  legislation  on  that  subject  throughout  the 
United  States  at  the  time  the  article  was  written,  and 
gives  also  in  some  detail  an  account  of  the  influences 
which  brought  about  the  legislation  in  the  State  of 
Indiana.  It  has  been  thought  that  it  would  be  interest- 
ing to  supplement  the  article  with  a  brief  note  which 
would  show  the  conditions  since  that  date.  It  is  evident 
that  the  movement  which  was  just  well  under  way  at 
the  time  of  the  passage  of  the  Indiana  law  was  one 
which  met  with  popular  approval.  The  subjoined  data 
show  that  from  the  year  1894  to  date  forty-one  of  our 
states  have  taken  some  action  regarding  either  uniform- 
ity of  text-books  or  the  supplying  of  text-books  to  the 
pupils,  either  free  or  at  low  rates.  How  far  the  move- 
ment has  been  primarily  in  the  interests  of  the  schools, 
how  far  it  has  been  an  attempt  to  win  popular  favor  by 
an  attack  upon  the  so-called  "  school-book  trust,"  how 
often  individual  manufacturers  were  looking  for  an  ex- 
clusive contract,  and  how  far  other  motives  of  a  private 
nature  may  have  entered  into  the  actions  of  our  legis- 
lators, of  course  cannot  be  known  without  a  very  de- 
tailed study.     Enough,  however,  is  shown  in  this  note 


NOTE.  257 

to  make  it  clear  that  our  people  generally  have  made 
arrangements  for  providing  our  pupils  with  text-books 
which  they  deem  suitable,  at  such  rates — if,  indeed, 
they  are  not  furnished  free — ^that  no  hindrance  shall  be 
put  in  the  way  of  a  thorough  elementary  education. 

In  the  following  digest  the  method  of  citation  followed 
is  that  used  by  the  State  Library  of  New  York  in  its 
index  of  legislation.  It  contains  chapter  number  or 
page  of  act  or  resolution  and  day  and  month  of  approval 
or  passage.  In  most  of  the  states  the  session  laws  are 
numbered  consecutively.  Where  this  is  the  case  the 
abbreviation  for  chapter  (ch.)  is  omitted,  e,  g.,  94,  5  Je., 
03.  In  the  other  states  the  abbreviation  for  page  (p)  is 
given. 

I.  Uniformity  of  Textbooks. 

A.  State  to  adopt  and  contract  for. 

Wash.  150,  21  Mr.  ^95 — ^not  to  be  changed  within 
5  yrs. 

W.  Va.  37,  22  F.  '95. 

Okl.  34,  art.  9,  12  Mr.  '97.— Supt.  of  public  in- 
struction to  contract  for  5  yrs. 

Mon.  p.  61,  1  Mr.  '97. 

Tex.  164,  10  Je.  '97.     Extra  sess.  12,  15  My.  '03. 

Kan.  179,  13  Mr.  '97.  (Additional  textbooks  to 
be  adopted  by  state  commission.  Kan.  176,  2  Mr. 
'99.) 

Mich.  198,  29  My.  '97.  (Repealed  Mich.  27,  30 
Mr.  '99.) 

Id.  p.  85,  6  F.  '99 — textbook  commission  to  fur- 
nish.    Also  Id.  p.  401,  9  Mr.  '99— for  6  yrs. 

Or.  p.  87,  17  F.  '99— for  6  yrs. 

Tenn.  205,  13  Ap.  '99— not  to  be  changed 
oftener  than  5  yrs.  (Merchants  and  dealers  may 
buy  and  sell  sclioolbooks  contracted  for  by  state. 


268  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS, 

Tenn.  71,  22  Ap.  '01.  Amending  '99,  ch.  205, 
sec.  8.) 

N.  C.  1,  8  F.  '01— for  not  less  than  5  yrs. 

Nev.  39,  8  Mr.  '01— <jhange  not  to  be  made 
oftener  than  once  in  3  years,  or  except  by  act  of 
legislature.  (Board  of  education  to  recommend 
to  legislature  [formerly  prescribe  and  cause  to  be 
adopted]  series  of  textbooks  in  common  school  sub- 
jects; no  district  entitled  to  public  school  money 
unless  using  books  adopted  by  legislature.  Nev. 
38,  8  Mr.  '01.     Amending  '99,  ch.  78.) 

Va.  '02.  Amendment  to  Constitution. — State 
board  to  select  textbooks  and  appliances.  (Text- 
books not  to  be  changed  oftener  than  once  in  4 
yrs.  except  histories  of  the  United  States.  Va. 
694,  3  Mr.  '98.) 

Ga.  P.  53,  13  Ag.  '03. — Textbook  commission  to 
adopt  and  make  5  yr.  contract  for. 

Mon.  116,  122,  7  Mr.  '03— no  change  to  be  made 
within  4  yrs.;  textbooks  to  bear  union  label;  dis- 
tricts to  vote  on  question. 

Ala.  p.  167,  4  Mr.  '03.— 5  yr.  contracts. 

Ky.  3,  8  R  '04.—  ''   ''  '' 

Miss.  86,  19  Mr.  '04.—  ''  ''  '' 

B.  County  Uniformity, 
(1)  Obligatory. 

K  C.  164,  6  Mr.  '95. 

Md.  135,  4  Ap.  '96. 

W.  Va.  62,  22  F.  '97.— County  schoolbook  boards 
appointed  by  county  courts  to  decide  upon  and  con- 
tract for. 

S.  D.  59,  9  Mr.  '97 — ^to  adopt  every  5  yrs.  and 
contract  with  publishers. 

Fla.  19,  5  Je.  '99. — County  board  of  public  in- 
struction to  adopt. 

S.  D.  113,  5  Mr,  '01.— County  boards  to  adopt. 


NOTE.  259 

(2)  Optional. 

Ark.  89,  31  Mr.  '99.— On  vote  of  electors; 
county  book  boards  to  select  texts;  special  districts 
may  adopt  different  books ;  books  in  use  in  counties 
not  adopting  shall  not  be  changed  for  1  yr. 

la.  Ill,  29  Mr.  ^00. — Questions  of  county  uni- 
formity of  textbooks  to  be  submitted  to  electors  on 
petition  of  one-third,  formerly  one-half,  of  rural 
school  directors  of  county.  Amending  Code  97, 
sec.  2832.  (Uniform  textbooks  of  county  to  be 
in  charge  of  county  supt.  unless  otherwise  ordered 
by  board  of  education.  Amending  Code  ^97,  sec. 
2832.     la.  112,  14  Mr.  '00.) 

II.  Establishing  State  Textbook:  Board. 

W.  Va.  37,  22  ¥.  '95. 

Id.  p.  401,  9  Mr.  '99. 

Kan.  31,  6  Jan.  '99.  Amending  '97,  ch.  197.— 
State  textbook  commission  made  permanent;  con- 
tracts may  be  renewed. 

Col.  5,  12  Je.  '01. — Board  of  education  to  ap- 
point textbook  commission  of  5  persons  for  5  yrs. 
to  select  textbooks  for  districts  of  first  class;  com- 
pensation $3.00  a  day. 

K  C.  1,  8  F.  '01.— State  Board  of  education 
made  state  textbook  commission. 

Cal.  173,  18  Mr.  '03.  Amending  P.  C.  sec.  1874. 
— Textbook  committee  to  adopt,  compile,  manufac- 
ture, and  distribute  books  for  primary  and  gram- 
mar grades  on  approval  of  board  of  education ;  text- 
books to  be  used  for  period  of  4  to  8  yrs. 

Ga.  p.  53,  13  Ag.  '03. — Board  of  education  con- 
stituted schoolbook  commission. 

Mon.  116,  122,  7  Mr.  '03.— State  textbook  com- 
mission to  consist  of  7  members  appointed  by  the 
governor  for  4  yrs.  (replacing  board  of  textbook 
commissioners  created  by  '97,  p.  61.) 

Tenn.  209,  20  Mr.  '03.    Amending  '99,  ch.  205.—. 


260  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS. 

Term  of  textbook  commission  fixed  at  5  yrs. ;  per 
diem  allowance  limited  to  60  (formerly  30)  days. 

Tex.  extra  sess.  12,  15  My.  ^03 — replacing  board 
created  by  '97,  ch.  164. 

Ala.  p.  167,  4  Mr.  '03. 

Ky.  3,  8  F.  '04 — "schoolbook  commission.'' 

Miss.  86,  19  Mr.  '04. 

III.  Pkoviding  for  Free  Textbooks. 

A.  Throughout  the  State, 

Del.  67,  12  My.  '98.  (Meeting  of  state  board  of 
education  for  the  purpose  of  changing  textbooks 
every  ten  yrs.  Del.  187,  8  My.  '95.) 

Id.  p.  401,  9  Mr.  '99.— But  any  school  district 
may  decide  not  to  have  free  textbooks,  and  may 
sell  to  pupils  boo'ks  adopted  by  the  state  commis- 
sioners. (Textbooks  in  houses  where  there  has 
been  contagious  disease  to  be  disinfected.  Id.  p. 
451,  13  Mr.  '99.) 

N.  J.  36,  26  Mr.  '02. 

U.  60,  12  Mr.  '03— provided  that  school  boards 
shall  purchase  all  such  books  now  remaining  in 
the  hands  of  merchants  and  pupils  of  their  re- 
spective districts.    Amending  E.  S.  '98,  sec.  1818. 

B.  Throughout  the  Counties. 

Md.  135,  4  Ap.  '96. — County  school  commis- 
sioners to  adopt,  purchase,  and  furnish  free;  money 
therefor  appropriated  by  the  state.  (Apportion- 
ing appropriation  for  textbooks.  Md.  330,  8  Ap. 
'02.) 

C.  Local. 

S.  D.  59,  9  Mr.  '97. — On  petition  of  majority  of 
electors. 


NOTR  261 

N".  Y.  195,  7  Ap.  ^97. — On  majority  vote  of  any 
union  district. 

Wash.  118,  19  Mr.  ^97. — Shall  vote  on  question. 

Id.  p.  28,  6  Mr.  '97. — ^Books  may  be  loaned  free 
or  sold  at  cost. 

K  D.  82,  8  Mr.  '99.— Board  to  provide  when 
two-thirds  of  voters  petition,  or  when  board  see  fit. 
Amending  E.  C.  '95,  sec.  863-4. 

Wy.  29,  16  F.  '99. — School  directors  to  provide 
free  textbooks  and  school  supplies. 

Id.  p.  217,  16  Mr.  '01.— Electors,  rather  than 
trustees,  to  determine  whether  books  are  to  be  free. 
Amending  '99,  p.  306. 

Minn.  314,  21  Ap.  '03.— In  cities  under  10,000 
board  of  education  may  provide  free  textbooks;  on 
petition  of  25  voters  board  to  provide  such  books 
or  request  council  to  submit  question  to  electors. 

W.  Va.  28,  28  F.  '03.— Boards  of  education  may 
provide  free  textbooks  from  building  funds;  pur- 
chase, distribution,  and  use. 

(1)  On  popular  vote. 

K  D.  109,  18  Mr.  '95. 
la.  37,  7  Mr.  '96. 

Kan.  179,  13  Mr.  '97.     (Contracts  may  be  re- 
newed.   Kan.  31,  6  Jan.  '99.) 
Mon.  p.  61,  1  Mr.  '97. 
Mich.  198,  29  My.  '97. 

(2)  State  school  funds  to  be  withheld  from  towns 
neglecting  to  provide  textbooks. 

Me.  64, 11  Mr.  '99.  (Parents  may  provide  books 
at  their  own  expense  for  exclusive  use.  Me.  47,  25 
F.  '95.) 

(3)  Textbooks  may  be  loaned  to  pupils  in  private 
pay  schools  during  vacations,  on  certain  conditions. 

Pa.  106,  7  Je.  '97. 


262  CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOL^.  \ 

D.  Furnished  to  the  Indigent. 

Ct.  27,  15  Mr.  '97.— School  visitors  may  buy  ati 
town  expense.  i 

S.  C.  539,  30  F.  '02.— District  school  trustees^ 
may  furnish.  ; 

N.  M.  39,  12  Mr.  '03.  Amending  C.  L.  '97,  sec.  > 
1555.  I 

IV.  Providing  Depositories  for  Textbooks.  i 

W.  Va.  62,  22  F.  '97.  i 

Ga.  p.  53,  13  Ag.  '03. — Contractor  to  maintain,  i 

Ala.  p.  167,  4  Mr.  '03. — State  depositories  and! 

county  agencies.  | 

Ky.  3,  8  F.  '04.  \ 

V.  Purchase  and  Sale  of  Books.  i 

I 

A.  Purchase. 

(1)  Agents  shall  not  be  interested  in  textbooks  or  ■ 
supplies.     Mass.  429,  25  My.  '96.     (Pupils  may  re-  | 
tain  and  purchase;  school  committee  to  make  rules  \ 
for  use  of  free  textbooks  in  accordance  with  '84,  ch. 
103.     Mass.  472,  6  Je.  '01.     Amending  '84,  ch.  103.)  | 

(2)  Unlawful  for  teachers,  supts.   or  trustees  to 
act  as  agents  for  textbooks.     Tex.  7,  21  F.  '00. 

(3)  State  to  contract  with  publishers.  | 

Id.  p.  401,  9  Mr.  '99— through  state  board  of  ; 
commissioners. 

Or.  p.  87,  17  F.  '99 — ^publishers  to  contract  to 
sell  at  fixed  prices.  | 

Mo.  p.  22,  13  Mr.  '97 — providing  for  second  5  ■ 
yr.  contract  by  state  commissioner.  i 

Tenn.  205,  13  Ap.  99— or  with  authors.  J 


NOTE.  263 

K  D.  82,  8  Mr.  '99.-^0  contract  for  free  text- 
books shall  be  for  less  than  3  or  more  than  5  yrs. ; 
publishers  to  furnish  supt.  of  public  instruction 
lists  of  books,  prices,  and  sample  copies.  Amend- 
ing R.  S.  '95,  sec.  863-4. 

(J.  10,  14  F.  '03. — On  expiration  of  contract 
state  supt.  to  call  convention  consisting  of  state 
supt.,  county  supts.,  and  principal  of  Normal 
School  to  provide  for  new  contract.  Amending 
R.  S.  '98,  sec.  1855,  1858. 

(4)  Publishers   to   maintain   agencies   throughout 
the  state;  competitive  bids. 

Mon.  p.  61,  1  Mr.  '97. 

Tex.  164,  10  Je.  '97. 

Kan.  179,  13  Mr.  '97 — maximum  prices  fixed  in 
law. 

Mich.  198,  29  My.  '97 — ^but  state  may  purchase 
manuscript  and  print  textbooks. 

Mon.  116,  122,  7  Mr.  '03. 

B.  Sale. 

(1)  At  cost  to  pupils. 

N".  H.  50,  19  Mr.  '95. 

S.  C.  257,  17  F.  '97— at  cost  or  exchange  price. 
(At  cost;  unlawful  for  schools  and  colleges  receiv- 
ing aid  from  free  school  fund  to  use  any  text- 
books disapproved  by  state  board  of  education. 
S.  C.  473,  21  F.  '98.  County  supt.  to  keep  office 
open  at  certain  times  for  purchase  of  books.  S.  C. 
204,  17  F.  '00.) 

Id.  p.  28,  6  Mr.  '97— clerk  of  trustees  shall  be 
custodian. 

(2)  At  25%  advance  on  contract  price. 
W.  Va.  62,  22  F.  '97. 


264              CITIZENSHIP  AND  THE  SCHOOLS.  \ 

(3)  At  10%  advance.  j 
S.  D.  59,  9  Mr.  '97. 

(4)  County,  city,  and  town  boards  of  education  ! 
may  purchase  school  books,  and  rent  or  sell  them  to  i 
pupils,  or  may  contract  with  merchants  to  sell  them  ' 
at  stipulated  prices.     Ga.  p.  90,  16  D.  '97. 

VI.  Begardino  Special  Textbooks. 

(1)  State  board  of  schoolbook  commissioners  may  ; 
order  revision  of  geographies  and  histories  oftener  ' 
than  every  5  yrs.     Ind.  216,  11  Mr.  '01.     Amending 
^93,  eh.  '93. 

i 

(2)  School  directors  may  buy  for  reference  in  i 
schools  Constant's  History  of  Wyoming  and  Carroll's  | 
Sabbath  as  an  American  War  Day.  Wy.  38,  14  F.  i 
^01.    Amending  R.  S.  '99,  sec  597.  1 

1 

(3)  State  board  of  schoolbook  commissioners  may  I 
adopt  a  reading  primer.     Ind.  51,  29  F.  '03.  j 


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